Blood, Circ & Immunity

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Created by
Harleen Pandher

Cards (34)

  • Primary vs Secondary Immune Response
    Primary responses take longer recovery & require more energy in comparison to secondary because in secondary, you don't have to go through the whole immune response since you developed the memory T-cells the first time to now mass produce antibodies.
  • Circulation & its Functions
    William Harvey (1628): showed blood is limited in volume (5L), flows in one direction & is recirculated by heart.
    1. Carries O2 & nutrients to cells.
    2. Removes CO2 and waste from cells.
    3. Transports hormones to target organs.
    4. Distributes heat in the body.
    5. Aids in defense against micro-organisms.
    Blood: O2 from lungs -> tissues -> CO2 from tissue -> lungs
    Also transports digestive tract nutrients to tissues & carries tissue waste to kidneys for excretion.
    • Systemic: L pump: O2 blood to body tissue: L Ventricular wall thicker
    • Pulmonary: R pump: Blood to lungs for O2
  • Vasoconstriction & Vasodilation
    Vasoconstriction: Blood vessels narrow, reducing flow to tissues
    Vasodilation: Blood vessels widen, increasing flow to tissues
  • Blood Vessel Issues
    • Aneurysm: Bulging or weakening in vessel wall.
    • Atherosclerosis: Fat buildup in inner vessel walls.
    • Bruising: Capillary rupture, blood leaks out into extracellular space.
    • Varicose Veins: Unidirectional valve damage in veins, blood pools, veins bulge.
  • Setting the Heart Beat

    • Myogenic - contracts w/o nerve stimulation.
    • Heartbeat controlled by sympathetic (stimulating) and parasympathetic (relaxing) nervous system branches.
    • Sinoatrial (SA) node in right atrium sets heart rate (pacemaker).
    • Normal heart rate: 80bpm (brady: <50, tachy: >100); systole: contract/diastole: relax
    • Contraction wave: SA node -> atrioventricular (AV) node -> bundle of His -> Purkinje fibers -> septum & ventricles -> blood out the atria/pulmonary arteries
  • Heart Sounds & Cardiac Cycle
    • Lubb-Dubb: Heard during heartbeat, caused by valve closure.
    • Heart Murmur: Faulty valve closure causing squishing sound when blood rushes from ventricle back to atrium.
    • Lubb: AV closes; Dubb: Semilunar closes
  • Blood Pressure (BP)

    Force on artery walls (systolic = BP during contraction/diastolic = BP when relaxed; avg 120/80mm Hg).
    • Measured by a sphygmomanometer (BP cuff) & stethoscope
    • Influenced by age, hydration, fitness, stress
    • Hypertension: diastolic ≥ systolic
  • Cardiac Output

    How much blood flows out of the heart per minute.
    Cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate (higher stroke volume/heart rate, heavier work for the heart and more likely heart failure).
    • Stroke Volume = Volume of blood pumped with each heart beat (avg 70mL/beat)
    • Heart Rate = # of beats/min 
     
  • Lymphatic System

    The vacuum of the circulatory system; Made of lymph vessel network that distribute lymph fluid & lymphocytes throughout the body.
    • Prevents swelling (edema) by absorbing excess tissue fluid and proteins, redirecting them to the blood.
    • Absorbs digested fats from the small intestine.
    • Fights infection and removes foreign materials from the blood by allowing white blood cells to reach tissues by bypassing the circulatory system, where they're too large to pass through.
  • Lymphatic System Terminology

    • Lymph: Fluid outside capillaries, contains leaked proteins from capillary walls.
    • Lymphocytes: WBCs, produce antibodies to fight infection.
    • Lymph nodes: Masses of tissues storing infection-fighting lymphocytes, remove foreign particles.
    • Lacteals: Collect fatty acids, glycerol from small intestine villi, transport to blood.
  • Immune Response 

    1. Macrophage: detects antigen, triggering Helper T-cells.
    2. Helper T-cells: Recognize antigen shape, release lymphokine.
    3. B-cell Activation: Lymphokine prompts B-cells to divide, produce antibodies.
    4. Killer T-cells: Activated to puncture & killinvader cell membranes, canceorus cells & mutated cells.
    5. Suppressor T-cells: Signal immune system slowdown after infection control.
    6. Memory T-cells: Retain antigen imprint for faster future response bc B & T cells die off in a few days.
  • Vaccination/Immunization

    Introduce weakened/dead microbes into body, triggering antibody & memory T cell production (exposing cell to antigen). Virulent microbes cause disease before giving immunity.
    • Chinese used smallpox-infected skin bits to blow into healthy noses.
    • Jenner's experiment: Injected cowpox pus into a boy, later resisted smallpox.
    • Louis Pasteur injected rabies virus w/ weakened strain, giving immunity to full attack.
    • Jonas Salk killed polio w/ formaldehyde & injected the vaccine into test animals.
  • Body’s Defence Lines:
    • First Line of Defense: All physical barriers:
    1. Skin
    2. Mucous and Cilia in respiratory tract
    3. Stomach Acids to eliminate invaders
    4. Lysozyme in tears.
    • Second Line of Defense (Cellular Defense):
    • Involves Leukocytes (WBCs) engulfing particles
    • Lymphocytes producing antibodies:
    • T Cells: Stored in thymus cells; identify & activate B cells
    • B Cells: Made in bone marrow; make antibodies to antigens
    • Globulins are complementary proteins that coat & attach to invaders, dissolving their cell membranes and attracting white blood cells (immunoglobins = antibodies)
     
  • Drugs & Historical Use
    Antibiotics disrupt bacterial cell wall production, so bacteria's membrane bursts & it dies. Antibiotics only work on bacteria but can kill good bacteria, cause utis, mutate & become immune (ex. MRSA-staph infection).
    • Viruses: Unaffected by antibiotics (bc they lack metabolic functions) & naturally clear up in 2 weeks.
    • Historical Use: 
    • 1945: Mercury = syphillis treatment
    • Salvarsan: later used for syphillis bc less side effects & blocks chemical rxns in microbe.
    • 1935: Sulfanilamide = infection treatment
    • 1929: Alex Flemming finds mould's antibacterial properties.
  • Monoclonal Antibodies
    1 specific type of antibody that come from plasma cells (produced by isolating B lymphocyte & exposing it to 1 type of antigen).
    • The activated plasma is fused w/myeloma (cancerous) cell to make immortal hybridoma.
    • When exposed to antigen they're marked for, they cause agglutination (clumping) of cells.
    Functions:
    • Identify infections
    • Pregnancy diagnosis (binds w/HcG hormone)
    • Cancer: Distinguish normal & cancerous cells (deliver radioactive material to tumors).
  • Blood Clotting Disorders

    • Thrombus: Blood clot in a vessel, cutting blood flow and oxygen supply.
    • Embolus: Blood clot that breaks free and travels through the circulatory system. Can cause strokes if it blocks brain vessels (cerebral embolism) or heart attacks (coronary embolism) if it blocks heart vessels.
    • Hemophilia: Inherited disorder causing lack of clotting factors, leading to improper blood clotting.
  • RBC Disorders

    High altitudes = less O2 = more RBCs made. Athletes train high to increase RBCs and exchange more O2. 
    • Carbon Monoxide: Binds to hemoglobin easier, causes poisoning.
    • Anemia: Iron deficiency (low RBCs). Causes tiredness, hair loss.
    • Sickle Cell Anemia: Genetic disorder where RBCs are sickle shaped instead of donut, so they don't transport O2 efficiently & don't flow well in vessels.
    • Pernicious Anemia: Vitamin B12 not absorbed by intestine which you need to make RBCs
  • Blood Proteins

    Facilitate in blood transportation, keep blood volume constant, create osmotic pressure & maintain blood viscosity (thickness) for flow
    • Albumin: Transports bilirubin, regulates water balance.
    • Fibrinogen: Clotting.
    • Globulins: Fight infection, transport cholesterol (antibodies/immunoglobulins).
  • CO2 role in blood:
    Most CO2 w/the blood's water is transported as HCO3- (bicarbonate) which acts as a buffer, while the H ions keep blood pH around 7.4.
  • Blood Clotting

    Enzymatic process (heat speeds) stopping bleed w/platelets, prothrombin & fibrinogen.
    • Prothrombin: Liver makes w/vitamin K. Thromboplastin protein converted to thrombin w/Ca2+
    • Fibrinogen: Long chain protein from liver: broken down by thrombin > fibrin threads
    • Clot: Platelet & blood cells tangled in fibrin threads
    1. Damaged platelets/cells release thromboplastin (prothrombin activator)
    2. Thromboplastin releases Ca2+, helping prothrombin > thrombin.
    3. Thrombin changes fibrinogen > fibrin.
    4. Healed: plasmin destroy fibrin, restoring circulation. Plasma w/o fibrin = serum.
  • Immune Disorders

    Auto-Immune Disease: T/B cells attack own cells, normally suppressor T-cells stop it, but can fail (drugs & infection weaken suppressors)
    • Rheumatic Fever: Attacks & scars heart tissue.
    • Rheumatoid Arthritis: Bones & connective tissue degenerate.
    Mononucleosis: Excess lymphocytes bc of Epstein-Barr virus.
    Leukemia: Uncontrolled production of poorly developed WBCs
    AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome): HIV infection w/low Helper T cells and antibodies, causing unorganized immune responses.
    Allergy: Body mistakes harmless protein as invader & makes immune response
  • Blood Groups

    Glycoproteins (ID cards/antigens): Big carb-protein complexes on RBC membranes. They act as markers to identify cells as friend or foe.
    • Immune Attack on Mismatched Blood: Getting blood or tissue w/foreign markers (antigens) leads to antibody development and rejection, causing blood to clump, clogging capillaries & hindering oxygen/nutrient exchange.
  • Antigen-Antibody Reactions

    Antigen:
    • Glycoproteins that identify toxins, foreign materials, and pathogens.
    Antibody (specific immune response):
    • Y-shaped proteins that bind w/antigen, help macrophages (cells that eat foreign substances) recognize them. This causes clumping (agglutination)
  • Capillary Fluid Exchange

    Only circulatory exchange site; near every tissue. Delivers O2, glucose, amino a, removes CO2 & waste.
    • Extra-cellular Fluid (ECF): Fluid bw cells; help transport bw cells & capillaries.
    • Fluid Pressure/Filtration: BP & volume filter nutrients & O2 out capillaries at arteriole end. Ventricular contraction BP push water & ions out of blood into ECF in vessels.
    • Osmotic Pressure/Absorption: Water pressure push waste & CO2 back in capillaries at venule end. Blood's big proteins & dissolved minerals make osmotic gradient, pulling fluid into capillaries.
  • ECG
    Electrocardiogram: shows electrical conductivity of the heart & is used to identify and diagnose heart conditions.
    A) Atria contract
    B) Ventricle contract
    C) Ventricle relax
  • Heart Pathway
    Body cells (deoxygenated)
    1. Superior/Inferior Venacava
    2. Right Atrium (AV Valve: Tricuspid)
    3. Right Ventricle (semi lunar valve: Pulmonary)
    4. Pulmonary Artery (to lungs)
    5. Pulmonary Vein (from lungs)
    6. Left Atrium (AV Valve: Mitral/bicuspid)
    7. Left Ventricle (semi lunar: Aortic)
    8. Aorta
    A) Pulmonary Valve (SL)
    B) Aortic Valve (SL)
    C) Septum
    D) L Ventricle
    E) L Atrium
    F) Pulmonary Veins
    G) Mitral (AV) Valve
    H) L Pulmonary Artery
    I) Aorta
    J) Superior Venacava
    K) R Pulmonary Artery
    L) Pulmonary Veins
    M) R Atrium
    N) Tricuspid(AV) Valve
    O) R Ventricle
    P) Inferior Venacava
  • RBCs

    Erythrocytes; no nucleus
    • Made in bone marrow, live 120 days before being broken down by liver and spleen; iron (heme) recycled into pigment.
    • Hemoglobin (4 chains: globin & heme) carries O2 and CO2 in plasma.
  • WBCs

    Leukocytes; nucleus.
    • Fewer than RBCs, fight microbes by diapedesis: squeeze out of capillaries, engulf & release enzymes to digest WBC & microbe; leave puss - some disrupt microbe functions.
    • Granulocytes (made in bone marrow; granules in cytoplasm)
    • Neutrophils (60-70%): Phagocytes
    • Eosinophils (2-4%): Engulf antigen-antibody complexes
    • Basophils: Release histamine, causing capillary dilation
    • Agranulocytes (made in lymph tissue, no granules)
    • Lymphocytes (25-30%): Make antibodies in lymph and blood
    • Monocytes: Phagocytes that engulf foreign cells
  • Platelets & Plasma
    Platelets:
    • Specialized cell fragments from megakaryocytes in red bone marrow (no nucleus; thrombocytes)
    • Clotting (jagged edges) & maintain pH
    Plasma:
    • Transports O2 & CO2 (with RBCs), salts, minerals
    • Maintains temp & water balance
  • Blood & its Composition
    Fluid tissue vital for cell protection & survival.
    55% plasma, 45% cells (centrifuge)
    >1% WBCs & platelets, mainly water (dissolved O2, CO2, nutrients, vitamins, hormones, wastes & salts)
  • Relationship bw Cardiac Output & BP
    BP Factors (3): Measured by baro (stretch) receptors in aortic arc of carotid artery.
    High BP: Baroreceptors signal medulla oblongata to:
    • ⬇️ sympathetic nervous system = vasodilation
    • ⬆️ parasympathetic nervous system = slow heart rate & reduce blood vol
    Cardiac Output Direct Relationship:
    • Blood Vol: More vol = high pressure (affect by fluid retention).
    • Heart Rate: Fast rate = high BP (e.g., salt ⬆️ blood volume; stress).
    Arteriolar Resistance Inverse Relationship:
    • Artery Diameter:
    • Vasoconstriction increases BP.
    • Vasodilation decreases BP.
  • 🩸 Vessels
    Artery: R 🩸 away heart
    • Heart pump: stretch for blood rush (high BP: neck/wrist pulse)
    • 3 thick, stretchy layers
    Arteriole: Small artery reg R🩸 flow (contract/relax) to body
    • Mid layer: Elastic fibre & smooth muscle
    Capillary: Fluid & gas exchange site bw cells & tissue (O2 & nutrient out, CO2 & waste in)
    • Thin, semipermeable, single layer cell blood vessels (high to low BP)
    Venule: Merged capillary carry B blood to heart (low BP)
    • Line w/smooth muscle
    Vein: Large unidirectional vessel carry B 🩸 to heart
    • Blood reservoir
    • 1 way Valve & skeletal muscle push blood ⬆️ bc low BP
  • Heart Parts
    • Atria: ⬆️ chambers, contract to push blood ⬇️.
    • Ventricles: ⬇️  chambers, pump blood out. R lungs, L body (thicker walls).
    • Aorta: Big artery (high BP), stretchy walls, sends O2 blood to body.
    • Pulmonary Arteries/Veins: Carry deO2/O2 blood to/from lungs.
    • Vena Cava: Big vein, blood to heart.
    • Coronary Arteries: From aorta, give heart O2 blood.
    • AV Valves: Tricuspid (R) and bicuspid (L), divide atria & ventricles.
    • SL Valve: Stops backflow into ventricles from pulmonary valves.
    • Chordae Tendineae: Anchor AV valves, stop backflow, keep 1 way flow
    • Septum: Separate heart sides
  • Which of the above patients may have leukemia? What else could you check for diagnosis?
    Patient B: Leukemia results in uncontrolled production of WBCs AND if a nucleus is misshaped of WBCs or they keep getting sick because the WBCs aren't properly developed.