Gender

• Sex: biological difference between males and females including chromosomes, hormones and anatomy
• Gender: psychological and cultural differences between males and females including attitudes, social roles and behaviour
• Sex-role stereotyping: set of beliefs and preconceived ideas that put an expectation on males and females in a given society
• Gender dysphoria: biological sex doesn’t align with how they feel or the gender they identify with
• • Androgyny: a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics in one’s personality (e.g masculine - aggressive and competitive, feminine - caring and sensitive)
  • BRSI (Bem Sex-Role Inventory) : Bem’s scale presents 20 characteristics for each classification (masculine, feminine, neutral), used a 7 point scale, classified via 2 dimensions (masculinity-femininity, androgynous-undifferentiated) (androgynous being high masc and high fem, undifferentiated being low masc and low fem)
• • BSRI characteristics: MASCULINE - dominant, forceful, aggressive ; FEMININE- compassionate, loyal, loves children ; NEUTRAL - friendly, jealous, truthful
  • (+) test-retest reliability: 1000+ students results corresponded with own description of gender identity, increased validity
  • (-) cultural and historical bias: over 40 years old, stereotypical to traits as can differ depending on culture (cultural research shows some tribes have males with feminine traits but that is not abnormal), lacks temporal validity
  • self-report questionnaires can be invalid, subjective interpretation
• Role of chromosomes in sex & gender

  • chromosomes made from DNA, genes are short sections of DNA that determine characteristics of a living thing (XX: females, XY: males)
  • all normal egg cells produced by a human ovary have an X chromosome, half of sperm cells carry X or Y, baby’s sex determined by sperm that fertilises egg (girl; X, boy: Y), Y carries SRY gene (sex-determining region Y) that causes testes to develop in an XY embryo, these produce androgens (male sex chromosomes), causes embryo to become male (if without then is female)
• Role of hormones in sex & gender

  • gender development, in womb acts on brain & reproductive organs development, at puberty in adolescence a burst of hormonal activity triggers development of secondary characteristics (e.g pubic hair), differs between male and female
• Oestrogen


  Determines female sexual traits & menstruation, can cause heightened emotions & irritability in menstrual cycle (PMT- pre menstrual tension), diagnosable PMS
• Oxytocin


  Women produce larger amounts, stimulates lactation (breastfeeding), reduces stress hormone cortisol & facilitates bonding (i.e love hormone), released after childbirth, makes mothers feel 'in love' with baby, influences stereotype of men being less intimate/loving
• Testosterone

  controls development of male sex organs, links to aggression (Nanne Van de Poll et al showed that female rats who had been injected with testosterone became more sexually & physically aggressive)
• Evaluation of hormones/chromosomes in sex & gender 


  (+) DAVID REIMER CASE: botched circumcision operation left without penis, doctor said biological sex less important than environmental influence on gender identity, instructed parents to raise as stereotypical female, by adolescence couldn’t adjust (severe psychological and emotional damage - extensive aggression and inability to fit in with other girls), shows importance of biology

  (-) contradictory evidence: double-blind study, 43 males tested against placebo or testosterone injection weekly, found no significant difference
• Klinefelters syndrome

  • biologically male, XXY chromosome
  • physical characteristics: reduced body hair, rounded body, underdeveloped genitals, clumsy, lack of co-ordination, breast development, susceptible to health issues commonly found in women
  • psychological characteristics: poor developed language skills and reading ability, passive, shy, lack of sexual drive, doesn’t respond well to stressful situations, problems with executive functions (memory and problem solving)
• Turners syndorme

  • biologically female, XO (missing chromosome)
  • physical characteristics: no menstrual cycle, ovaries failed (sterile/infertile- cant get pregnant), no breasts, webbed skin, square-build (no difference between waist and hips), physically immature
  • psychological characteristics: higher reading ability, lower performance on spatial, visual memory and mathematical skills, socially immature (cant relate to others or fit in)
• Atypical sex chromosome patterns (KLINEFELTERS & TURNERS)

  • (+)nature v nurture debate: shows behavioural & psychological in conditions, biological basis direct result of abnormal chromosomal structure, suggests innate ‘nature’ influences have a powerful effect on psychology & behaviour
  • (-) environmental explanations: behavioural traits aren’t causal, social/environmental experiences (how they’re treated e.g Turners’ social immaturity, teachers can indirectly impact school performance because they’re treated as ‘special’, hence learning implications), argues isn’t just due to nature
• Cognitive explanation: Kohlberg’s theory

  • Stage 1: GENDER IDENTITY - able to correctly identify as boy/girl, unaware of consistency, simple labelling (age 2-3)
  • Stage 2: GENDER STABILITY - realises gender stays consistent in themself over time, cant apply to others, cant comprehend external changes (boys with long hair, female builder) (age 4-5)
  • Stage 3: GENDER CONSTANCY - realises & understands constancy (age 6)
  • imitation of role models: seek out gender appropriate role models, identifies with them, internalises concept of gender then actively confirms the concept themself
• Kohlberg’s theory A03

  • (+) Slabs & Frey: presented children with split screen images of males & females performing same tasks, younger children same time watching both, constancy stage children watched same-sex model, supports gender-appropriate models
  • (-) constancy not supported: Bussey & Bandura found children age 4 noticing gender appropriate toys as good/bad, contradicts Kohlberg, supports gender schema theory (suggest absorb gender appropriate info as soon as identifies self)
  • methodological issues: interviewed children, lack of vocabulary/ verbal ability to express complex ideas
• Cognitive explanation: gender schema theory

  • Martin & Halverson established gender identity, around age 2-3 searches for info for development/understanding of gender schema (acquired with gender identity)
  • schema expands to include wide range behaviours & personality traits, directs experience & understanding, by 6 is fixed/stereotyped so disregards info that doesn’t fit existing schema
  • in-group: own gender, pays more attention to info relevant to gender identity, bolsters self-esteem
  • out-group: opposite gender, around 8 develops for both genders as opposed to just own
• Gender schema theory A03

  • (+) Martin & Halverson’s own study found children under 6 likely to remember photos of gender consistent behaviour
  • (+) rigidity of gender beliefs: strong in-group bias, explains how children pay more attention to relevant info e.g ignores idea of women builders
  • (+) compliments Kohlberg’s theory: explains motivation to remember in-group info - gender constancy
• Psychodynamic explanation to gender: Freud psychoanalytic theory

  • 3rd stage (phallic) gender development occurs, prior have no concept of gender identity, described as bisexual (neither masc/fem), phallic’s focus is genitals, crucial to form identity
  • Oedipus complex: develops feelings for mother, jealous of dad (In the way), fears castration, to resolve gives up & identifies with father
  • electra complex: penis envy, mother is competition, blames mum for lack of penis (castrated it), over time accepts & substitutes for desire for baby, identifies with mother
• Freud’s psychoanalytic theory continued

  • identifies with same sex parent (adopts values & beliefs), process is internalisation (taking on)
  • Little Hans: evidence of oedipus complex, fear of horses (stemmed from incident of horse collapsing in street), represents fear of castration as an unconscious defence mechanism (displacement) as of appearance similarities (long nose)
• Freud’s psychoanalytic theory A03

  (-) research doesn’t support Oedipus complex: Freud ‘sons with punitive & harsh fathers develop stronger sense of gender identity- higher anxiety strengthens identification with aggressor (dad), but evidence shows actually more secure masculinity

  (-)Freud admitted doesn’t understand women’s development (penis envy concept- reflects patriarchal Victorian era which he lived & worked in), feminists argued cultural concept not innate trait (androcentric idea that women want to be men)

  (-) lacks scientific rigour: unconscious is untestable, cant be falsified
• Social learning theory applied to gender

  • direct reinforcement: more likely to repeat reinforced (praised) gender appropriate behaviour (boys - rough play, girls- dress up), this encouragement to show distinct gender appropriate behaviour is called differential reinforcement (how they learn identity), reinforced behaviours are then imitated (more likely if rewarded)
  • indirect (vicarious) reinforcement: consequences of another persons behaviour observed (if favourable consequence like a compliment they’ll likely imitate, if punished then unlikely to be copied, for e.g boys playing with dolls)
• social learning theory continued

  • identification: attaches to someone they relate to (gender)/ want to be, known as a role model
  • modelling: demonstrates behaviour, if observed behaviour is repeated by the observer then the behaviour was modelled
  • mediational processes: ATTENTION- (pays attention) watches mum put on make-up ; RETENTION- (remembers) remembers process of how she did it to reproduce ; MOTIVATION- identification (wants to be like) ; MOTOR PRODUCTION- physical capability to do it
• Social learning theory A03


  (+) explains changing gender roles: SLT explains how society’s new forms of acceptable behaviour over time has been reinforced (changing expectations- women's capabilities i.e strength), no change in biology so better explained by SLT

  (-)not a developmental theory: inadequate - motor reproduction doesn’t consider age & maturation can effect the likelihood as they may struggle to reproduce behaviours if not physically & intellectually capable - supports Kohlberg’s gender constancy (Dubin found noting behaviour from early age, but imitation only happens later)
• Influence of culture on gender roles

  • nature v nurture debate - biological/innate difference between males & females if stays consistent across cultures in cross-culture research, culturally specific its due to socialisation/nature
  • MEAD - ROLES
  • BUSS - MATING PREFERENCE
  • MUNROE & MUNROE - LABOUR DIVISION
• Cultural research on gender roles

  • MEAD: New Guinea tribes research, ARAPESH- men & women gentle, responsive & cooperative ; MUNDUGUMOR- men & women violent, aggressive, seek power & position ; TCHAMBULI- showed opposite gender-role behaviours (women- dominant & managerial, men- emotionally dependent)
  • BUSS: found consistent patterns in mate preferences in 37 countries across all continents ( women- wealthy & resourceful men, men- youthful & attractive women)
  • MUNROE & MUNROE: most societies‘ divisions of labour organised via gender lines (males- breadwinners, females- nurturers)
• Cultural influence on gender roles A03


  (-) criticisms of Mead’s research: observer bias, didn’t separate research form Samoan life opinions, generalised off of short period study

  (-) imposed etic: western researchers, imposes own cultural interests, assumes universality

  (-) nature v nurture: hard to separate, as soon as born are exposed to socialisation along with the gender-role expectations that come with it, hard to determine where nature (biology) stops and nurture (social influence) begins
• Media influence on gender roles

  • provides role models whom children may idenify with & want to imitate
  • rigid stereotypes: Bussey & Bandura found men are seen as independent and ‘advice-givers’, and women as dependent and ‘advice seekers’
  • Furnham & Farragher: study on TV adverts, found men more likely to be shown in autonomous roles within professional settings & women in familial roles in a domestic setting - suggests media plays a role in reinforcing widespread social stereotypes
• media influence on gender roles continued

  • McGhel & Frueh found children who had more exposure to media display more gender-stereotypical views in attitude & behaviour
  • information we are told effects belief of what we’re capable of - self efficacy (Bandura)
  • (-) correlation not causation: argued media reflects set stereotypes, or is cause by presenting men & women in these ways, cant compare to a control group
  • (-) counter stereotypes: Brave challenges traditions of masculinity/femininity, Pingree found stereotyping reduces when children shown TV ads of women in non-stereotypical roles
• Gender Dysphoria: identify with the opposite sex of which you were birthed as, causes stress and discomfort so can be recognised as a psychological disorder, commonly known as being ‘transgender’, can get surgery to change genitals
• Gender Dysphoria - biological explanations

  • brain sex theory: brain structure is dimorphic (different for males and females), in post-mortem studies of 6 male-to-female transgenders, BSTc found to be similar size to females (40% smaller than mens)
  • Genetic factors: Heylens et al compared 23 MZ twins with 21 DZ twins where one of the pair had GD, found 9% of MZ twins concordant for GD and 0% found in DZ
• Gender Dysphoria - social-psychological explanations

  • psychoanalytic theory: Ovesey & Person- GD biological males due to extreme separation anxiety before gender identity established - child creates symbiotic fusion (combines self with mother) to relieve anxiety, child becomes mother & adopts female identity
  • cognitive explanation: Liben & Bigler- extension of gender schema theory - dual pathways, 1: normal process proposed by Mart. & Hal. 2: own interests overrule gender-appropriate attitudes, e.g boy likes playing with dolls so much he believes its normal, non sex-typed schema (flexible)
• Gender Dysphoria A03

  (-) biological explanation oversimplifies a complex concept: reductionism isnt useful as GD is unlikely to be caused by one single influence

  (-) issues with psychoanalytic theory: doesn’t explain GD biological females, hard to test concept of caused by separation anxiety as fantasies are unconscious

  (-)issues with cognitive theory: Liben & Bigler theory is descriptive not explanatory - doesn’t explain why a child may become interested in activities associated with opposite sex, or how the activities cause non sex-typed schemas