othello

• ACT I (AO1)

  OTHELLO: THE HERO DRIVEN BY LOVE:

  The Moor Othello, a respected general, has secretly married a wealthy Venetian aristocrat, Desdemona. Her father, Barbantio, is informed of this (on the night of the marriage) by Roderigo, who had hoped to marry Desdemona himself. Barbantio goes in search of Othello and then makes his way to the Senate where he accuses Othello of bewitching his daughter;

  "That thou hast practised on her with foul charms, abused her delicate youth with drugs or minerals."

  (Act I, Scene 2)

  "She is abused, stolen from me, corrupted by spells and medicines."

  (ACT I, Scene 3)

  (possible context of black people and witches)

  
  

  Barbantio's accusations are proved false when Othello and Desdemona explain how they fell in love. The Duke of Venice tries to reconcile Barbantio to his daughter's marriage but the angry father disowns Desdemona.

  "That I have ta'en away this old man's daughter,

  it is most true. True, I have married her.

  The very head and front of my offending

  Hath this extent, no more."

  (Act I, Scene 3)

  (It's true that I've taken this man's daughter from him and married her. But that's my only offence. There's nothing more.)

  "Her father loved me, oft invited me,

  Still questioned me the story of my life

  From year to year, the battles, sieges, fortunes,

  That I have passed...She'd come again and with a greedy ear"

  (Act I, Scene 3)

  (Desdemona used to listen attentively. If she had to go do some household chore, I noticed that she'd always come back quickly to hear more of my stories. Desdemona fell in love with Othello and his past. Compelling stories that captured Desdemona's heart.)

  
  

  The Senate sends Othello to defend Cyprus from a Turkish invasion. Desdemona asks to be allowed to accompany her husband, She is put in the care of Othello's ensign, Iago. Iago's wife, Emilia, is to be Desdemona's lady-in-waiting.

  "The Turk with a most mighty preparation makes for Cyprus. Othello, the fortitude of the place is best known to you."

  (Act I, Scene 3)

  (The Turks are heading for Cyprus with a powerful fleet. Othello, you understand better than anyone how the defences for Cyprus work. Even though we have a very good officer in charge there already, everyone says you're the better man for the job. Emphasises the political respect they have for Othello.)

  "And I a heavy interim shall support

  By his dear absence. Let me go with him."

  (Act I, Scene 3)

  (When I fell in love with Othello I made up my mind that I wanted to live with him. You can see how much I wanted to be with him by how violently I threw away my old life. I feel like I'm a part of him now, and that means I'm part of a soldier. I saw Othello's true face when I saw his mind. I gave my whole life to him because of his honour and bravery. If I were left at home uselessly while he went off to war, then I'm separated from my husband in his natural element. I'd be miserable without him. Let me go with him.)

  
  

  
  

  IAGO: THE VILLAIN DRIVEN BY REVENGE:

  Iago is an embittered man, who is angry because Othello has not given him the promotion that he believes is due to him. A young Florentine soldier, Cassio has been made lieutenant over him.

  "I know my price, I am worth no worse a place."

  (Act I, Scene 1)

  And I know my own worth well enough to know I deserve that position [to be made Othello's lieutenant.)

  
  

  "says he, "I have already chose my officer."

  And what was he?... One Michael Cassio, a Florentine."

  "But he, sir, had th' election"

  (Act I, Scene 1)

  (I've already chosen my lieutenant," he says. And who does he choose? A guy who knows more about numbers than fighting! This guy from Florence named Michael Cassio. Iago's jealousy illustrated/introduced by Shakespeare.)

  (But Cassio's been chosen over me.)

  
  

  
  

  Iago seeks to revenge himself on both Cassio and Othello, and has already made trouble for Othello; it was he who persuaded Roderigo to inform Brabantio of Desdemona's elopement in the first scene.

  "I follow him to serve my turn upon him."

  Act I, Scene 1)

  (I'm serving under him to take advantage of him. Manipulation and deception. His Machiavellian character introduced.)

  
  

  "Call up her father. Rouse him. Make after him, Poison his delight, Proclaim him in the streets."

  (Act I, Scene 1)

  (Let's shout up to Desdemona's father, wake him, pester him, spoil his happiness, spread rumours about him in the streets. Iago encouraged Roderigo.)

  
  

  "I hate the Moor, And it is thought abroad that 'twixt my sheets. He's done my office. I know not if 't be true, But I, for mere suspicion in that kind,

  Will do as if for surety. He holds me well.

  The better shall my purpose work on him.

  Cassio's a proper man. Let me see now, To get his place and to plume up my will

  In double knavery. How?"

  (Act I, Scene 3)

  (I hate the Moor, and there's a widespread rumour that he's slept with my wife. I'm not sure it's true, but just the suspicion is enough for me. He thinks highly of me. That'll help. Cassio's a handsome man. Let's see, how can I get his position and use him to hurt Othello at the same time? How?)

  
  

  "After some time, to abuse Othello's ear

  That he is too familiar with his wife. He hath a person and a smooth dispose to be suspected, framed to make women false. The Moor is of a free and open nature that thinks men honest that but seem to be so, and will as tenderly be led by th' nose as asses are. I have 't. It is engendered! Hell and night must bring this monstrous birth to the world's light."

  (Act I, Scene 3)

  (After a while, I'll start telling Othello that Cassio is too intimate with Desdemona. Cassio is a smooth talker and a good-looking guy, the sort of man that people would expect to be a seducer. The Moor is open and straightforward. He thinks any man who seems honest is honest. People like that are easy to manipulate. So it's all decided. I've worked it out. With a little help from the devil, I'll bring this monstrous plan to success.)
• ACT II (AO1)

  PERSONAL & POLITICAL CONFLICT IN CYPRUS:

  The action moves to Cyprus. The threat of military invasion is removed when the Turkish fleet is destroyed in a storm, which Othello, Desdemona, and Iago pass through safely.

  "News, lads, Our wars are done! The desperate tempest hath so banged the Turks, That their designment halts."

  (Act II, Scene 1)

  (I've got news, boys, the war's over! This terrible storm has smashed the Turks so badly that their plans are ruined. One of our ships has reported that it saw most of their fleet shipwrecked.)

  "News, friends! Our wars are done, the Turks are drowned."

  (Act II, Scene 1)

  (The war is over and the Turks have drowned. Othello has arrived safely in Cyrpus. Everyone appears triumphant.)

  
  

  
  

  There is a night of festivities to celebrate the destruction of the Turkish fleet and the marriage of Othello and Desdemona. The newly-weds seem secure in their love. However, while there is no longer a military conflict, there is a new threat to the couple's happiness: Iago. Roderigo has been persuaded to follow Desdemona to Cyprus. Iago has promised to help him woo Desdemona, making Roderigo believe that she will soon tire of Othello. Iago now makes Roderigo believe that Cassio is his rival for Desdemona's affections.

  "I have to tell you that Desdemona's completely in love with him."

  (Act II, Scene 1)

  (Iago is persuading Roderigo that Desdemona is completely in love with Cassio.)

  "If she had been blessed, she would never have loved the Moor. Blessed pudding! Didst thou not see her paddle with the palm of his hand? Didst not mark that?"

  (Act II, Scene 1)

  (Roderigo claims that Desdemona is too moral to do that, however, Iago claims that if she was so moral, she would never have fallen in love with the Moor in the first place. He then persuades Roderigo further by saying: Good lord! Did you notice how she and Cassio were fondling each other's hands? Did you see that?)

  
  

  
  

  On the night of the celebrations, Iago goads Roderigo into challenging Cassio, whom he has plied with a drink. A fight ensues. Cassio is disgraced and Othello dismisses him from his post.

  
  

  "If I can fasten but one cup upon him,

  With that which he hath drunk tonight already,

  He'll be as full of quarrel and offense

  As my young mistress' dog...Now 'mongst this flock of drunkards Am I to put our Cassio in some action

  That may offend the isle."

  (Act II, Scene 3)

  (Iago's second soliloquy. If I can just get him to drink one more glass after what he's drunk already, he'll be as argumentative and eager to fight as a little dog...Now I'll get Cassio to do something in front of all these drunkards that will offend everyone on the island.)

  
  

  "'Tis evermore the prologue to his sleep.

  He'll watch the horologe a double set

  If drink rock not his cradle."

  (Act II, Scene 3)

  (Iago to Montano. He drinks like this every night before he goes to sleep. He'd stay up all night and all day if he didn't drink himself to sleep. Painting Roderigo in a negative light, depicting him as irresponsible and not fit for the role of Othello's lieutenant.)

  
  

  "Dost thou prate, rogue?" (strikes him)

  (Act II, Scene 3)

  (Are you talking, you villain? (Cassio hits RODERIGO))

  
  

  - They fight -

  "Away, I say, go out, and cry a mutiny."

  (Act II, Scene 3)

  (Go tell everyone there's a riot. Iago talking to Roderigo.)

  
  

  "Cassio, I love thee

  But never more be officer of mine."

  (Act II, Scene 3)

  (Cassio, I love you, but you're never again going to be one of my officers. Othello removes Cassio from his position of Lieutenant.)

  
  

  
  

  Iago tells Cassio that his best chance of winning back Othello's good opinion lies in asking Desdemona to plead for him. Iago plans to tell Othello that Desdemona has committed adultery with Cassio.

  "For 'tis most easy Th' inclining Desdemona to subdueIn any honest suit. She's framed as fruitful

  As the free elements. And then for her To win the Moor, were to renounce his baptism."

  (Act II, Scene 3)

  (It's easy to get Desdemona on your side. She's full of good intentions. And the Moor loves her so much he would renounce his Christianity to keep her happy. Iago persuades Cassio to get Desdemona to plead for him)

  
  

  "For whiles this honest fool Plies Desdemona to repair his fortune And she for him pleads strongly to the Moor, I'll pour this pestilence into his ear: That she repeals him for her body's lust."

  (Act II, Scene 3)

  (And while this fool is begging Desdemona to help him, and while she's pleading his case to the Moor, I'll poison the Moor's ear against her, hinting that she's taking Cassio's side because of her lust for him.)

  
  

  
  

  Iago claims to have personal motives for his revenge on Cassio and Othello. He claims they have both cuckolded him by having sexual relations with Emilia.

  "For that I do suspect the lusty Moor

  Hath leaped into my seat...And nothing can or shall content my soul Till I am evened with him, wife for wife. Or, failing so, yet that I put the Moor

  At least into a jealousy so strong That judgment cannot cure."

  (Act II, Scene 1)

  (Soliloquy at the end of Act II, scene 1. Iago lays out his motive and plan. I have a feeling the Moor slept with my wife. That thought keeps gnawing at me, eating me up inside. I won't be satisfied until I get even with him, wife for wife. If I can't do that, I can at least make the Moor so jealous that he can't think straight. His personal vendetta against Othello and Cassio.)

  "Two things are to be done: My wife must move for Cassio to her mistress. I'll set her on. Myself, the while, to draw the Moor apart And bring him jump when he may Cassio find Soliciting his wife. Ay, that's the way. Dull not device by coldness and delay."

  (Act II, Scene 3)

  (Now two things still need to be done. My wife has to help make Desdemona take Cassio's side. I'll put her on that. And I need to take the Moor aside right at the moment when Cassio's talking to Desdemona, so he'll see them together. Yes, that's the way I'll do it. Let's not ruin a brilliant plan by being slow to act. Iago's plan to bring Othello down. His Machiavellian character further revealed by Shakespeare. Schadenfreude.)
• ACT III (AO1)

  Act III, Scene 3 = Arguably the most important in the play. Where Othello goes from being a loving husband to being enraged by jealousy, which in turn, causes him to transform into a Machiavellian character. PERIPETEIA

  OTHELLO: THE HERO DRIVEN BY JEALOUSY:

  Iago persuades Othello that Desdemona is in love with Cassio and has committed adultery with him. He contrives proof of this, making use of a handkerchief belonging to Desdemona, which he claims has been found in Cassio's bedchamber. In fact, the handkerchief was passed on to Iago by Emilia, who picked it up when Desdemona dropped it.

  "Look to your wife, observe her well with Cassio."

  (Act III, Scene 3)

  (Watch your wife. Watch how she is with Cassio. Instilling suspicions into Othello about Desdemona being unchaste.)

  "She did deceive her father, marrying you,"

  (Act III, Scene 3)

  (Iago is attempting to depict Desdemona as being deceitful in nature.)

  "Not to affect many proposèd matches

  Of her own clime, complexion, and degree,

  Whereto we see in all things nature tends"

  (Act III, Scene 3)

  (Iago attempting to make Othello become self-fulfilled with his own insecurities, by suggesting that Desdemona might go back to these men that she once turned away to be with Othello.)

  "Haply, for I am black And have not those soft parts of conversation That chamberers have, or for I am declined Into the vale of years."

  (Act III, Scene 3)

  (He is aware that he is not the aesthetic that Venetian, aristocratic women, like Desdemona would go for. He is questioning his worth to Desdemona, as a result of Iago, using these characteristics to manipulate him.)

  "What handkerchief? Why, that the Moor first gave to Desdemona, That which so often you did bid me steal."

  (Act III, Scene 3)

  (Iago's continuous villainy being demonstrated by Shakespeare, he has been using his wife to try and get between Othello and Desdemona on several occasions. Emilia is a pawn in Iago's plot to bring down Othello.)

  "I will in Cassio's lodging lose this napkin

  And let him find it. Trifles light as air

  Are to the jealous confirmations strong

  As proofs of holy writ. This may do something.

  The Moor already changes with my poison.

  Dangerous conceits are in their natures poisons."

  (Act III, Scene 3)

  (Iago's third soliloquy. I'll leave this handkerchief at Cassio's house and let him find it. To a jealous man, a meaningless little thing like this looks like absolute proof. This handkerchief may be useful to me. The Moor's mind has already become infected with my poisonous suggestions. Ideas can be like poisons.)

  "Thou hast set me on the rack."

  (Act III, Scene 3)

  (Othello is claiming to Iago that he has tortured him with these thoughts of Desdemona being unchaste; cheating on him with Cassio.)

  "Farewell! Othello's occupation's gone."

  (Act III, Scene 3)

  (Othello admits to his career being over, as he will now be consumed by the thoughts of Desdemona cheating on him with Cassio. He is no longer the same man.)

  "I'll have some proof. Her name, that was as fresh

  As Dian's visage, is now begrimed and black

  As mine own face."

  (Act III, Scene 3)

  (I need proof! Her reputation was as pure as the snow, but now it's as dirty and black as my own face. Again, his race is coming into play, he is internalising the negative thoughts everyone has about him, and black people)

  "Now art thou my lieutenant."

  (Act III, Scene 3)

  (Through manipulation Iago has achieved his goal of being Othello's lieutenant. This shows the extent of Iago's deception over Othello and those around him.)

  "Who, he? I think the sun where he was born

  Drew all such humors from him."

  (Act III, Scene 4)

  (Desdemona's flaw or not seeing Othello's jealousy - she ultimately brings about her own death.)

  
  

  
  

  
  

  Although he is reluctant to believe his wife is unchaste, Othello becomes convinced that Desdemona is a wore and is seized by overpowering jealousy. He vows to seek revenge on Desdemona and Cassio by killing them. Iago promises to help him.

  "Oh, that the slave had forty thousand lives!

  One is too poor, too weak for my revenge.

  Now do I see 'tis true."

  (Act III, Scene 3)

  ([Othello] Oh, I'd kill that bastard Cassio forty thousand times if I could! Killing him once is not enough revenge. Now I see it's true.)

  "Oh, blood, blood, blood!"

  (Act III, Scene 3)

  (Othello wants to kill Iago for what he has done.)

  "Even so my bloody thoughts with violent pace

  Shall ne'er look back, ne'er ebb to humble love. Till that a capable and wide revengeSwallow them up."

  (Act III, Scene 3)

  (My thoughts of revenge are flowing through me like a violent river, never turning back to love, only flowing toward full revenge that'll swallow them up. I swear to God I'll get revenge.)

  
  

  
  

  Desdemona is frightened by Othello when he questions her about the handkerchief and lies about what has happened to it.

  "Give me your hand. This hand is moist, my lady."

  (Act III, Scene 4)

  (Othello addressing Desdemona's moist hands. Moist hands were supposed to indicate a tendency towards love.)

  "This argues fruitfulness and liberal heart.

  Hot, hot, and moist...For here's a young and sweating devil here, That commonly rebels. 'Tis a good hand, A frank one."

  (Act III, Scene 4)

  (It says you're fertile, and you've got a giving heart. Hot, hot and moist. With a hand like this, you need to fast and pray to stave off temptations. Someone with a young sweating hand like this one is bound to act up sooner or later. It's a nice hand, an open one. Accusing her of infidelity.)

  "She told her, while she kept it 'Twould make her amiable and subdue my father Entirely to her love, but if she lost it Or made gift of it, my father's eye

  Should hold her loathèd and his spirits should hunt

  After new fancies."

  (Act III, Scene 4)

  (An Egyptian woman gave that handkerchief to my mother. She was a witch. She told my mother that as long as she kept it with her, my father would love and desire her. But if she lost it or gave it away, my father would start hating her and looking at other women. The handkerchief symbolises their unity and now that it's missing, it represents her lusting after other men, i.e Cassio.)

  "And it was dyed in mummy which the skilful

  Conserved of maidens' hearts."

  (Act III, Scene 4)

  (The silk came from sacred silkworms, and it was dyed with fluid made from embalmed virgins' hearts. The embroidery on the handkerchief represents chaste. The traditional view that a woman loses her virginity to her husband on their wedding night; the sheets are stained with blood when the marriage is consummated. Therefore, by the handkerchief being missing, it represents Desdemona giving herself away to another man.)

  "It is not lost, but what and if it were?"

  (Act III, Scene 4)

  (Desdemona lies about not knowing where the handkerchief is. She knows it is lost but has not admitted this to Othello.)

  
  

  
  

  She is unaware of the danger she is in by continuing to plead for Cassio. Cassio gives the handkerchief to his mistress, Bianca.

  "Pray you, let Cassio be received again."

  (Act III, Scene 4)

  (Please hire Cassio again. Pleading for Othello to reinstate Cassio as Lieutenant.)

  "Come, come, You'll never meet a more sufficient man."

  *Act III, Scene 4)

  (Desdemona unaware of the fact that she's contriving her own death by steering Othello further to jealousy by pleading him to reinstate Othello and continuously going on about how brilliant he is.)

  "Sweet Bianca, (giving her DESDEMONA's handkerchief)Take me this work out."

  (Act III, Scene 4)

  (Sweet Bianca, would you copy this embroidery pattern for me?)

  "O Cassio, whence came this? This is some token from a newer friend!"

  (Bianca now consumed with Jealousy, she believes that Cassio has found a new mistress whilst being away from her.)
• ACT IV (AO1)

  IAGO: THE VILLAIN'S POISON DESTROYS OTHELLO'S MIND:

  Iago continues to torment Othello with insinuations about Desdemona and Cassio fornicating.

  "Or to be naked with her friend in bed

  An hour or more, not meaning any harm?"

  (Act IV, Scene 1)

  (Iago is tormenting Othello with insinuations of Desdemona's infidelity. Instilling images into Othello's mind, which he knows will drive him further towards insanity.)

  "With her, on her, what you will."

  (Act IV, Scene 1)

  (With her, on top of her—however you want to say it. Iago confirming Othello's suspicions.)

  "Think every bearded fellow that's but yoked

  May draw with you. There's millions now alive

  That nightly lie in those unproper beds

  Which they dare swear peculiar."

  (Act IV, Scene 1)

  (Every married man has been cheated on. Millions of men sleep with wives who cheat on them, wrongly believing they belong to them alone.)

  
  

  
  

  
  

  Othello is so overwhelmed that he falls down in a fit. While he is writhing on the ground, Iago creates another opportunity to 'prove' Desdemona is a wore.

  "To confess, and be hanged for his labor. First to be hanged, and then to confess—I tremble at it."

  (Act IV, Scene 1)

  (I'll kill him first, and then let him confess—I'm trembling with rage - Othello. Othello falls into a trance.)

  
  

  
  

  
  

  Iago persuades Othello to observe him talking to Cassio. Unable to hear what is being said, Othello believes that Cassio is laughing about committing adultery with Desdemona.

  "Do but encave yourself, And mark the fleers, the gibes, and notable scorns That dwell in every region of his face. For I will make him tell the tale anew Where, how, how oft, how long ago, and when He hath, and is again to cope your wife."

  (Act IV, Scene 1)

  (So hide here and watch how he sneers at you. I'll make him tell me the whole story again—where, how often, how long ago—and when he plans to sleep with your wife in the future.)

  "Now will I question Cassio of Bianca, A huswife that by selling her desires Buys herself bread and clothes. It is a creature That dotes on Cassio, as 'tis the strumpet's plague To beguile many and be beguiled by one. He, when he hears of her, cannot refrain From the excess of laughter. Here he comes."

  (Act IV, Scene 1)

  (Iago's soliloquy - shared only with the audience. Emphasises his deceitfulness. Also, frustrates us as viewers, as it only makes the tragedy ever more powerful, as we know exactly what is going to happen, but there is nothing we can do about it.

  Now I'll ask Cassio about Bianca, a prostitute who sells her body for food and clothes. She's crazy about Cassio. That's the *****'s curse, to seduce many men, but to be seduced by one. Whenever he talks about her he can't stop laughing.)

  "Alas, poor rogue, I think indeed she loves me."

  (Act IV, Scene 1)

  (I really think she loves me. Cassio is referring to Bianca, however, Othello believes he is talking about Desdemona.)

  
  

  
  

  
  

  Bianca returns the handkerchief to Cassio, convinced that it was given to him by another woman and thus that he has been unfaithful. Othello observes what is happening between Cassio and Bianca and believes that this is evidence of Desdemona's adultery (Bianca giving Cassio back the replica handkerchief. Othello believes this is the handkerchief that he gave to Desdemona.)

  "'Tis such another fitchew. Marry, a perfumed one.— What do you mean by this haunting of me?"

  (Act IV, Scene 1)

  (It's a wore like all the others, stinking of cheap perfume.—Why are you always hanging around me? Treatment of women.)

  "What did you mean by that same handkerchief you gave me even now? I was a fine fool to take it. I must take out the work?"

  (Act IV, Scene 1)

  (What did you mean by giving me this handkerchief? I was an idiot to take it! You want me to copy the embroidery pattern? When presenting the handkerchief, Othello notices that it is his. Once again confirming his suspicious of Desdemona cuckolding him.)

  "This is some minx's token, and I must take out the work? There, give it your hobby-horse. Wheresoever you had it, I'll take out no work on 't."

  (Act IV, Scene 1)

  (Bianca believes that the handkerchief was given to him by another woman. Othello believes this other woman to be Desdemona.)

  "By heaven, that should be my handkerchief!"

  (Act IV, Scene 1)

  (Othello notices that the Handkerchief is his. He believes that Desdemona gave it to Cassio.)

  "Yours by this hand. And to see how he prizes the foolish woman your wife! She gave it him, and he hath given it his *****."

  (Act IV, Scene 1)

  (Iago confirms that it was his handkerchief, and Desdemona gave it to Cassio. It was yours, I swear. And do you see how much your foolish wife means to him? She gave it to him, and he gave it to his *****.)

  
  

  Othello decides to poison his wife, but Iago suggests smothering her in the marital bed instead.

  "I would have him nine years a-killing."

  (Act IV, Scene 1)

  (I wish I could keep killing him for nine years straight. Othello is enraged. He wants to seek revenge by killing Cassio.)

  "Ay, let her rot and perish and be damned tonight, for she shall not live. No, my heart is turned to stone. I strike it and it hurts my hand."

  (Act IV, Scene 1)

  (Yes, let her die and rot and go to hell tonight. She won't stay alive for long. No, my heart's turned to stone—when I hit it, it hurts my hand. Othello also wants to seek revenge on Desdemona. He is consumed by rage by her 'infidelity'.)

  "I will chop her into messes! Cuckold me?"

  (Act IV, Scene 1)

  (I'll chop her into pieces. How could she cheat on me? The very idea of being cheated on is humiliating for Othello and any man in the 16th century. Reduces his masculinity, also, confirming the negative perceptions he has on himself as a black man living in 16th century Europe.)

  "Get me some poison, Iago, this night. I'll not expostulate with her, lest her body and beauty unprovide my mind again—This night, Iago!"

  (Act IV, Scene 1)

  (Othello tells Iago that he wishes to poison Desdemona.)

  "Do it not with poison. Strangle her in her bed, even the bed she hath contaminated."

  (Act IV, Scene 1)

  Don't do it with poison. Strangle her in her bed, the same bed she's contaminated. More symbolic to murder her in. the bed she committed adultery.)

  "And for Cassio, let me be his undertaker. You shall hear more by midnight."

  (Act IV, Scene 1)

  (Iago lets Othello know that he will deal with Cassio.)

  
  

  
  

  
  

  Desdemona is abused by physically and verbally in Act IV. Othello refuses to believe her or Emilia's protestations of Desdemona's innocence. Othello calls Desdemona a wore and strikes her in front of Lodovico, who has arrived with a letter from the Venetian Senate. Othello has been recalled to Venice and Cassio is to govern Cyprus.

  "for the love I bear to Cassio"

  (Act IV, Scene 1)

  (Desdemona saying how much she cares for Cassio and how she wishes Othello and Cassio to be civil. Othello cries out in frustration of Desdemona's declaration of 'love' for Cassio.)

  (striking her) "Devil!"

  (Act IV, Scene 1)

  (Othello physically assaults Desdemona.)

  "Nor ever heard, nor ever did suspect."

  "I durst, my lord, to wager she is honest,

  Lay down my soul at stake. If you think other

  Remove your thought, it doth abuse your bosom."

  (Act IV, Scene 2)

  (Emilia attempting to defend Desdemona.)

  "Was this fair paper, this most goodly book,

  Made to write "*****" upon? What committed?

  Committed? O thou public commoner!"

  (Act IV, Scene 2)

  (Was someone as beautiful as you meant to be a *****? What have you done? What have you done? Oh, you streetwalker! Othello is comparing Desdemona to a prostitute, for sleeping with other men.)

  "Heaven stops the nose at it and the moon winks."

  (Act IV, Scene 2)

  (The moon is a feminine symbol, universally representing the rhythm of time as it embodies the cycle. The phases of the moon symbolise immortality and eternity, enlightenment or the dark side of Nature herself. The moon, to Othello, represents the dark side of Desdemona's nature - her infidelity. Also, because of the moons beauty, it can be depicted as the comparison for the main female protagonist in the story or represents the lunatic madness of the character.)

  "Impudent strumpet!"

  (Act IV, Scene 2)

  (Othello accuses Desdemona of being a wore.)

  "Venice has made Cassio governor here on Cyprus."

  (Act IV, Scene 2)

  "wherein none can be so determinate as the removing of Cassio."

  (Act IV, Scene 2)

  (Iago continues his plot for revenge on Cassio.)

  
  

  
  

  
  

  Desdemona asks Emilia to put her wedding sheets on her bed and sings a melancholy song about women forsaken in love.

  "Lay on my bed my wedding sheets."

  (Act IV, Scene 2)

  (Desdemona asks Emilia to put her wedding sheets on her bed.)

  "Nay, heaven doth know."

  (Act IV, Scene 2)

  (Desdemona is absolutely clueless about why Othello is calling her a wore and publically shunning her.)

  "I pray you, be content, 'tis but his humor.

  The business of the state does him offence,

  And he does chide with you."

  (Act IV, Scene 2)

  (Iago continuing to conceal the truth from Desdemona and leave her in the dark.)

  "All's one. Good Father, how foolish are our minds!

  If I do die before thee, prithee, shroud me

  In one of these same sheets."

  (Act IV, Scene 3)

  (It doesn't matter. Oh, how silly we are! If I die before you do make sure I'm wrapped in those sheets in my coffin. Foreshadowing Desdemona's death.)

  "My mother had a maid called Barbary,

  She was in love, and he she loved proved mad

  And did forsake her. She had a song of "Willow,"

  An old thing 'twas, but it expressed her fortune

  And she died singing it. That song tonight

  Will not go from my mind. I have much to do

  But to go hang my head all at one side

  And sing it like poor Barbary."

  (Act IV, Scene 3)

  (My mother had a maid named Barbary. She was in love, and her lover turned out to be wild and left her. She knew an old song called "Willow" that reminded her of her own story, and she died singing it. I can't get that song out of my head tonight. It's all I can do to keep myself from hanging my head down in despair and singing it like poor Barbary. Building up to Desdemona's death - foreshadowing.)

  WILLOW SONG
• ACT V (AO1)

  THE TRAGIC DENOUMENT: LOVE IS DESTROYED:

  Othello has asked Iago to kill Cassio. Iago again persuades Roderigo to assist him but the attempt on Cassio's life does not go as planned. Iago wounds Cassio himself and then kills Roderigo.

  "Here, stand behind this bulk, straight will he come.

  Wear thy good rapier bare, and put it home.

  Quick, quick! Fear nothing."

  (Act V, Scene 1)

  (Iago asking Roderigo to assist him in the death of Cassio.)

  "I know his gait, 'tis he.—Villain, thou diest!"

  [Roderigo] Thrusts at CASSIO

  (Act V, Scene 1)

  - Draws, and wounds RODERIGO -

  "Oh, I am slain!"

  (Act V, Scene 1)

  (Cassio stabs Roderigo, in an attempt to kill him.)

  "I am maimed for ever. Help, ho! Murder! Murder!"

  (Act V, Scene 1)

  (Iago stabs Cassio in the leg, injuring him and attempting to kill him)

  
  

  
  

  
  

  Iago believes removing Roderigo will ensure his safety, but he does not know that Roderigo was carrying letters outlining Iago's evil schemes. These letters are discovered in the final scene.

  "Now, whether he kill Cassio Or Cassio him, or each do kill the other, Every way makes my gain. Live Roderigo, He calls me to a restitution large

  Of gold and jewels that I bobbed from him As gifts to Desdemona. It must not be. If Cassio do remain He hath a daily beauty in his life That makes me ugly."

  (Act V, Scene 1)

  (Whether he kills Cassio or Cassio kills him, or they kill each other, it all works in my favour. If Roderigo survives, though, he'll ask me for all the gold and jewelry that I stole from him and said I gave to Desdemona. I can't let that happen. If Cassio survives, he's so handsome and well-spoken that he makes me look ugly. Shakespeare revealing Iago's motives to kill both Cassio and Roderigo.)

  
  

  
  

  Gripped by jealousy, Othello smothers Desdemona in her bed. She dies protesting her innocence.

  "Yet she must die, else she'll betray more men."

  (Act V, Scene 2)

  (Othello justifying his murder of Desdemona.)

  "This sorrow's heavenly, It strikes where it doth love."

  (Act V, Scene 2)

  (I'm acting like God in the Old Testament—I have to punish the one I love. By killing Desdemona, Othello is taking on the role of God - links to the murder of King Richard II in 'Richard II'. Requires divine punishment.)

  "And yet I fear you, for you're fatal then

  When your eyes roll so. Why I should fear I know not, Since guiltiness I know not. But yet I feel I fear."

  (Act V, Scene 1)

  (You're scaring me. You terrify me when you have that look in your eyes. I don't know why I should be afraid since I haven't done anything wrong. But I'm still afraid. Even moments before her death, Desdemona has no idea about why Othello is about to murder her/why he is so upset with her. Emphasises the impact of her death - more of an effect on the audience.)

  "Think on thy sins."

  (Act V, Scene 2)

  (Think of your sins. Her alleged infidelity calls for divine punishment.)

  "That handkerchief Which I so loved and gave thee, thou gav'st To Cassio."

  (Act V, Scene 2)

  (Emphasises the symbolism of the handkerchief.)

  " But while I say one prayer!"

  " It is too late." (he smothers her)

  "—She's dead.—"

  (Act V, Scene 2)

  (Too late for divine forgiveness or forgiveness from him. He murders her by smothering her to death.)

  
  

  
  

  
  

  Emilia comes to inform Othello of the attack on Cassio and finds her mistress dying.

  "Cassio, my lord, hath killed a young Venetian

  Called Roderigo."

  (Act V, Scene 2)

  (Emilia lets Othello know that Cassio's killed a young Venetian named Roderigo.)

  "Not Cassio killed! Then murder's out of tune,

  And sweet revenge grows harsh."

  (Act V, Scene 2)

  (Cassio's not dead? Then the wrong man is dead, and sweet revenge has gone wrong. Catastrophe - collateral damage. The wrong people have been killed.)

  
  

  
  

  Desdemona refuses to blame Othello for her murder. Emilia calls out for help. Montano, Gratiano and Iago come running to find out what has happened.

  "Oh, falsely, falsely murdered!"

  (Desdemona aware that she has been unfairly murdered.)

  "A guiltless death I die."

  (She knows that she has died an innocent woman.)

  (Act V, Scene 2)

  "She's like a liar gone to burning hell. 'Twas I that killed her."

  (Act V, Scene 2)

  (She was lying even as she was going down to hell. I did kill her. He still did not trust her, even on her deathbed. His fatal law - hamartia.)

  "Oh, the more angel she, And you the blacker devil!"

  "Thou dost belie her, and thou art a devil."

  "Villainy, villainy, villainy!

  I think upon 't, I think I smell 't, Oh, villainy!

  I thought so then, I'll kill myself for grief.

  Oh, villainy, villainy!"

  (Act V, Scene 2)

  (Emilia shocked by what Othello has done. Horrified. Links to Titus Andronicus - black people being the devil in carnet - villainous - emphasised by him being called 'blacker'. Black people seen as the devil, this has been confirmed by Emilia.)

  "And your reports have set the murder on."

  (Act V, Scene 2)

  (Emilia doesn't believe Othello - the women are the only ones who are not being coerced by Iago and accepting his manipulations.)

  (Act V, Scene 2)

  
  

  
  

  
  

  Othello is taken, prisoner. Iago's plots are revealed, largely by Emilia, who is killed by her husband for speaking the truth.

  "O thou dull Moor! That handkerchief thou speak'st of I found by fortune and did give my husband."

  (Oh, you stupid Moor! I found that handkerchief by accident and gave it to my husband. He'd begged me to steal it many times. Truth is revealed too late. Othello has already killed Desdemona. Links to Richard II and any tragic protagonist - the moment of realisation comes too late. What makes it even more tragic.)

  "Villainous *****!"

  (Act V, Scene 2)

  (Emilia has deceived Iago - Iago is infuriated with her.)

  "The woman falls! Sure he hath killed his wife."

  
  

  (Iago stabs and kills his wife, Emilia.)

  
  

  
  

  
  

  Iago attempts to escape but is captured and brought back under arrest. He refuses to explain why he has plotted against Othello. Othello realises his terrible folly. He is prevented from killing Iago and turns his weapon on himself. He dies, full of remorse, on the bed next to Desdemona. Cassio is made governor of Cyprus and Iago is led away for torture.

  "'Tis a notorious villain. Take you this weapon,

  Which I have recovered from the Moor. Come, guard the door without. Let him not pass,

  But kill him rather. I'll after that same villain,

  For 'tis a damnèd slave."

  (Act V, Scene 2)

  (He's a wicked, horrible criminal. Take the Moor's sword and guard the door from the outside. Kill him rather than let him leave this room. I'm going after Iago. He's a horrid criminal. Montano runs after Iago after he attempts to escape.)

  "I bleed, sir, but not killed."

  (Act V, Scene 2)

  (Othello attempts to kill Iago.)

  "O thou Othello, thou was once so good,

  Fall'n in the practice of a cursèd slave,

  What shall be said to thee?"

  (Act V, Scene 2)

  (Oh Othello, you were once so good, then you were tricked by this villain. What can I say to you? People now aware of Iago's villainy and manipulation over Othello.)

  "I found it in my chamber, And he himself confessed but even now That there he dropped it for a special purpose Which wrought to his desire."

  (Act V, Scene 2)

  (I found it in my room, and Iago just confessed that he put it there for his own purposes. Iago's villainy and Machiavellian nature is being revealed. He plotted revenge against Cassio and Othello for his own gain - an eye for an eye in his perspective. Schadenfreude.)

  "O fool! fool! fool!"

  (Act V, Scene 2)

  (Othello calls himself a fool. Emphasises the tragedy. It is too late - unchangeable past - links to Gatsby in The Great Gatsby.)

  "Your power and your command is taken off

  And Cassio rules in Cyprus."

  (Act V, Scene 2)

  (Othello stripped of his position. Just like Richard II being stripped of his divine right to rule/his crown.)

  "Of one not easily jealous, but being wrought,

  Perplexed in the extreme."

  (Act V, Scene 2)

  (Othello aware that he has been tricked and manipulated by Othello, but it is too late.)

  "I kissed thee ere I killed thee. No way but this,

  Killing myself, to die upon a kiss."

  (Act V, Scene 2)

  (I kissed you before I killed you. Now, killing myself, I'm dying while I kiss you again. Othello kills himself- overcome with guilt and anger.)

  "O Spartan dog, More fell than anguish, hunger, or the sea, Look on the tragic loading of this bed.

  This is thy work. The object poisons sight."

  (Ludovico to Iago - You bloodthirsty dog, you're crueller than sadness or hunger, crueller than the sea. Look at these dead people on this bed. You did all this. He makes me sick. Everyone now sees the person Iago is, however, it is too late, the damage has already been done. Emphasises the tragedy. The audience knew all along, which again, adds to the tragedy.)
• CHARACTERISATION (AO1/2)

  Othello

  WHO IS OTHELLO?

  Othello is a Moor and a successful mercenary general who works for the state of Venice.

  
  

  He is a middle-aged bachelor who elopes with and marries a wealthy young Venetian, Desdemona.

  
  

  Othello is posted to Cyrus as governer during th Turkish conflict.

  
  

  In Cyprus, Othello believes Iago's false tales of his wife's adultery and smothers her, afterwards killing himself.

  
  

  
  

  OTHELLO: FIRST IMPRESSIONS:

  Before he appears on stage we are led to believe by Iago that Othello is bombastic, conceited and personally lascivious. But Othello's appearance in Act I Scene 2 contradicts Iago's assessment. Instead, we see an impressive figure who displays a number of fine qualities: openness, sincerity and natural authority. Unlike Shakespeare's other tragic protagonists, Othello is not a monarch (King Lear), an aspiring monarch (Macbeth) nor a displaced prince (Hamlet). However, he is a worthy figure and Shakespeare stresses his nobility. The Moor is the descendant of a royal line of kings (Othello refers to his birthright when he defends his right to marry Desdemona) and has been an impressive military commander.

  
  

  'Valiant Othello' (Act I, Scene 3) commands the respect of figures of authority (the Duke of Venice, Governor Montano and even Brabantio). Although we do not see much evidence of his leadership in Cyprus, we know Othello is a conscientious soldier. He attempts to ensure that the carousing at his wedding festivities does not get out of hand and inspects the fortifications in the town in Act III Scene 2. Othello speaks and acts powerfully and in a way that inspires confidence in his character throughout the first two acts of the play (for example his dignity in front of the Senate in Act I Scene 3). Othello's positive attributes indicate that we should view him as a hero, as does his customary mode of speech. (Othello speaks in blank verse early in the play and is a fine rhetorician, despite his protestations to the contrary.)

  
  

  OTHELLO'S STYLE OF SPEECH:

  His statements are confused. They are characterised by a repetition of his main thoughts that are centred on Desdemona's betrayal. Othello's state of mind is mirrored by the language he makes use of, e.g short or uneven sentences, exclamatory sentences. This shows that he is highly agitated. He makes a pun on the word lie, which can mean both not telling the truth or having sex with someone. Both meanings have come to be identical for Othello at that stage. Other central ideas are also repeated, e.g. Handkerchief, confession or to confess.

  
  

  Confessing and hanging are connected with each other. This shows that Othello is no longer thinking in a rational way: While it is possible to hand someone after that person has made a confession, it is not possible to do this the other way round. Dramatic irony: 'it is not words that shake me thus'. The audience is aware that it is indeed only words that have confused Othello because nothing has happened. Othello's utterance ends with the exclamation "O devil", an expression that is closely associated with Iago, although Othello does not know this.

  
  

  OTHELLO & OPPOSITION:

  Othello is a play about opposites and opposition, and the many contradictions contained in the play are embodied in the tragic hero. All the characters hold specific, and often opposing views of the Moor. We have to judge Othello in the light of the evidence they present, whilst also taking into account the hero's words, actions and the idea of himself (which change). The hero's two contradictory roles also need to be considered. Othello is both a military man and lover-husband. There are other contradictions to think about. Othello occupies contradictory personal and political positions. He is a trusted foreign servant (an outsider), wielding power on behalf of the Venetian state, who seeks to become an equal member of and participant in that society through marriage. He is also, of course, a black man in a white world.

  
  

  
  

  OTHELLO'S TRAGEDY: A DOMESTIC TRAGEDY?

  The focus in this play is, as has often been suggested, domestic. Othello's previous history, the Turkish invasion and machinations of the Venetian state provide the backdrop to an essentially private tragedy. However, while the play focuses on the tragic consequences of sexual jealousy, we must not ignore the wider worldly or political dimension of Othello's tragedy. Othello is proud of his profession and his reputation as a soldier is an essential part of the hero's conception of himself. Othello's desire for revenge is prompted by his need to recover his reputation. A Jacobean audience would have understood the weight Othello attaches to his reputation: a man's honour was important and his wife's chastity was an integral part of it. When Othello fears that he has been cuckolded the hero doubts himself and is forced to accommodate a new role, that of duped husband, which his pride will not allow him to accept. It is possible to argue that Othello's marriage is a political act; a black soldier marrying a white aristocrat cannot be viewed in any other way, according to the views of the time.

  
  

  
  

  OTHELLO'S RACE:

  Othello's race is a significant part of his characterisation. Othello is not the stereotypical immoral, lustful Moor of much Renaissance drama. He is portrayed as such by other chatacters - notably Iago - but we realise that we cannot trust the judgement of those who make negative comments about Othello's race. Shakespeare encourages the audience to view the Moor's race positively, as Othello does himself in Act I & II.

  
  

  Race is not an issue for the heroine: as Othello reminds Iago, 'she had eyes and chose me' (Act III, Scene 3). However, Othello's race appears to bother him later in the play when his mind is poisoned by Iago, which results in Othello doubting his attractions. Othello mentions his blackness, his unsophisticated manners and his advanced age in a speech whoch suggests diminishing self-confidence as a husband:

  ACT III, SCENE 3:

  "Not to affect many proposèd matches

  Of her own clime, complexion, and degree,

  Whereto we see in all things nature tends"

  (Act III, Scene 3)

  (Iago attempting to make Othello become self-fulfilled with his own insecurities, by suggesting that Desdemona might go back to these men that she once turned away to be with Othello.)

  
  

  "Haply, for I am black And have not those soft parts of conversation That chamberers have, or for I am declined Into the vale of years."

  (Act III, Scene 3)

  (He is aware that he is not the aesthetic that Venetian, aristocratic women, like Desdemona would go for. He is questioning his worth to Desdemona, as a result of Iago, using these characteristics to manipulate him.)

  "What handkerchief? Why, that the Moor first gave to Desdemona, That which so often you did bid me steal."

  (Act III, Scene 3)

  
  

  "I'll have some proof. Her name, that was as fresh

  As Dian's visage, is now begrimed and black

  As mine own face."

  (Act III, Scene 3)

  (I need proof! Her reputation was as pure as the snow, but now it's as dirty and black as my own face. Again, his race is coming into play, he is internalising the negative thoughts everyone has about him, and black people)

  
  

  Iago's prejudice's have ultimately infected the noble hero. However, we will never feel that Othello becomes jealous and murderous because he is black. His negative emotions and actions are a result of being 'perplexed in the extreme' (Act V, Scene 2) by Iago, whos discrimination is a part of his evil, just as Othello's blackness is portrayed by Shakespeare as part of his nobility.

  
  

  
  

  OTHELLO & SLAVERY:

  Critics have suggested that Othello became 'tawny' rather than black in stage productions in the 1800s. This was to prevent the role from being linked to the idea of slavery. At the time that Othello was first performed, the African slave trade was already established. In the 1550s, Elizabethan adventurers had set out to the coast of Africa, where they raided the villages and kidnapped some of the inhabitants, bringing them back to England. Othello himself describes how he was briefly imprisoned as a slave.

  
  

  
  

  OTHELLO: LOVER & HUSBAND:

  The difficulty for an audience comes in accepting Othello as a perfect wooer, lover and husband, partly because Othello married Desdemona in secret - a covert act that sits uncomfortably with Othello's protestation that he has nothing to hide after the marriage. However, we are not encouraged to dwell on the elopement itself because it becomes clear that Desdemona was 'half the wooer' (Act I, Scene 3) and the couple speak clearly and honestly about their love, to the council and to each other. Their meeting in Cyprus reveals the intensity and sincerity of their mutual affection, and we are also assured of their sexual attraction.

  
  

  The Duke of Venice recognises Othello's suitability as a wooer when he says, 'I think this tale would win my daughter too' (Act I, Scene 3. He then seeks to reassure Brabantio, 'Your son-in-law is far more fair than black' (Act I, Scene 3). However, there are tensions and contradictions that must be considered, as Desdemona's need to live with her husband conflicts with Othello's intention to keep the marriage separate from his duties. We gradually come to question Othello's self-knowledge on this point. He may be a capable general, but the events of the play suggest that Othello is out of his depth in matters of the heart.

  
  

  
  

  OTHELLO'S LOVE:

  It is important that you can track the course of Othello's love for Desdemona, and how it is gradually overcome by darker emotions. When Othello greets Desdemona in Cyprus we get the first hint that the hero is overwhelmed by his love for his wife - he is almost too happy. Then in Act III Scene 3 he says that he fears chaos when he is away from Desdemona: 'perdition catch my soul/ but I do love thee! and when I love thee not/ Chaos is come again' (III.3.90-2). It seems Othello cannot master his powerful romantic and erotic feelings. Is Othello in the grip of emotions that he cannot control, even before Iago sets to work on him? The successful soldier becomes a blind lover. The qualities that served Othello well as a soldier contributes to his downfall. Othello's decisiveness leads him to seek 'ocular proof' (III.3.363) and then when he is presented with that proof his decision to pursue a bloody course is made swiftly.

  
  

  But it is not as simple as this. Othello suffers acutely from Act III Scene 3 onwards and does not give in to his feelings of jealousy as swiftly as William Hazlitt suggests when he describes Othello as having 'blood of the most inflammable kind'. Othello tries many times to persuade himself that Desdemona is honest; he has second thoughts about murdering her as late as the final scene. And we cannot ignore Iago's presence. Iago is immensely plausible and cunning and Othello has no reason not to trust him. There is a good deal of evidence to indicate that Othello is pushed towards tragedy by a ruthless 'demi-devil' (V.2.298), who takes advantage of his noble nature, and is not simply a jealous 'booby', as Thomas Rymer claims. We know just how powerful Iago's influence is because Othello begins to speak and think like the ensign when his imagination is polluted. We are forced to come to terms with the idea that Othello is not wholly noble; he is also capable of savagery and crudeness.

  
  

  
  

  OTHELLO'S TRANSFORMATION?

  The transformation of Othello is troubling. Why does Othello trust Iago more than he trusts his beloved wife? Why does he believe the worst of Cassio, who has been a trusted friend and colleague? We have to understand that Othello's conception of himself has been challenged. Iago cruelly reminds him that he is an outsider and addresses him as an ordinary, foolish cuckold (see IV.1.65-73). Given his pride, the hero finds this intolerable.

  
  

  F. R. Leavis has suggested that Othello's readiness to believe Iago is a sign that the hero is rather 'simple minded', inferring that lack of intellect contributes to Othello's tragedy. But Othello is much more than a weak fool. By the time Othello descends into murderous jealousy we are well acquainted with his noble character and recognise that he has been 'ensnared' (V.2.299). Surely Othello's preoccupation with honour and chastity are the obsessions of a virtuous, moral character? We might also feel that his desire for revenge is the result of Othello's failure to combine his roles as soldier and lover. When Othello fears that he has been betrayed by Desdemona he says woefully, 'Othello's occupation's gone!' (III.3.360). It is as if Desdemona was the prize Othello earned for his military victories. She has perhaps replaced his career as the source of his pride and honour. No wonder Othello feels her loss so keenly.

  
  

  
  

  OTHELLO'S FINAL SCENE:

  It is possible to argue that his insistence on the importance of his honour both redeems and damns Othello. His concern for his reputation in the final scene can diminish Othello in the eyes of the audience. Nonetheless, Othello believes he is saving other men's honour and redeeming his own when he smothers Desdemona, calling himself an 'honourable murderer' (V.2.291). Shakespeare reminds us that the hero was a worthy man before he was ensnared by Iago, in order to create pathos. When Othello commits suicide he courageously takes his own life to pay for the crime of killing Desdemona. In his final lines and final act Othello is perhaps able to reconcile his two contradictory roles: the soldier kills the faulty lover. So, while it is impossible to condone Othello's actions in Act V Scene 2, it is possible to sympathise with and pity the fallen hero, whose suffering has been extreme.

  
  

  Readers and critics of Othello have responded in many different ways to the protagonist. One popular view is that the character of Othello disintegrates psychologically and morally through the play and that this disintegration can be followed in his changing speech style. For example, he uses more oaths in the second half of the play, perhaps indicating moral corruption. Others, such as the scholar Muriel Bradbrook, see Othello as the descendant of the medieval stage devil, a corrupting influence throughout the play. She suggests that Othello should be considered a 'bogeyman'.

  
  

  Caryl Phillips, on the other hand, believes Othello to be fundamentally 'an impulsive and insecure man', a vulnerable human being who reacts under pressure ('A black European success', The European Tribe, 2000). Some critics go even further and praise Othello's decision to commit suicide, reading it not as a mark of weakness but as a sign of a Stoic hero. Stoics, who followed the teachings of the Greek philosopher Zeno (335-263 BC ), were supposedly indifferent to pain, and bore suffering without complaint.

  
  

  
  

  OTHELLO'S CONCEPT OF HIMSELF:

  Othello is proud of his career and character. He says, 'My parts, my title and my perfect soul/ Shall manifest me rightly' (I.2.31-2).

  
  

  Othello defends his character and actions in Act I. He feels that he is a worthy husband for Desdemona and that he has acted honourably.

  
  

  Some critics suggest that Othello's downfall is caused partly by the sin of pride. Do you agree?

  Compare the positive imagery that Othello uses to describe himself in Act I with the imagery in his final speech in the play, where he compares himself with a 'base Indian' and 'circumcised dog' (V.2.345 and 353).

  
  

  AO4: RICHARD II

  Like Richard II - Pride (Hubris) brings about his downfall and once he eliminates this aspect of his character it is too late
• CHARACTERISATION (AO1/2)

  Desdemona

  WHO IS DESDEMONA?

  Desdemona is a wealthy young Venetian woman, the daughter of Brabantio.

  
  

  She elopes with Othello the Moor and accompanies him to Cyprus.

  
  

  Desdemona is falsely accused of adultery and murdered by Othello.

  
  

  
  

  BRABANTIO'S DESDEMONA:

  Early in the play, Brabantio defines Desdemona as his 'jewel' (Act I, Scene 3). He says she is 'A maiden never bold,/Of spirit (Act I, Scene 3), modest and opposed to marriage, afraid to look on Othello. She emerges from her father's descriptions as an innocent, girlish figure. This version of Desdemona proves inaccurate when she speaks in Act I. However, by the end of the play. Othello's abusive treatment has turned Desdemona into the fearful girl Brabantio described. This is horribly ironic. Desdemona has been silenced and it seems her final role is to be a sacrifice to masculine pride.

  
  

  
  

  DESDEMONA THE WIFE:

  Desdemona asserts her rights as a married woman and insists that she is ready for a sexual relationship. There are other exchanges in the play that suggest Desdemona's sexuality, for example, Desdemona's participation in the crude talk with Iago in Act II Scene 1, and her admiring reference to Lodovico in Act IV Scene 3. But the heroine's active sexuality is necessary to the play. Iago is able to make a great deal out of the fact that Desdemona deceived her father in order to choose her own husband, and is therefore untrustworthy.

  
  

  It is important to remember that although Desdemona has disobeyed her father, she expects to submit to Othello's authority. She states this explicitly when she says, 'My heart's subdued/ Even to the very quality of my lord' (I.3.251-2). When Desdemona urges Othello to reinstate Cassio, she believes she is acting in Othello's best professional interests. Desdemona's 'nagging' can be portrayed on stage as playful and loving, her anxiousness about Othello's health touching.

  
  

  But Desdemona is not faultless. She lies to Othello about the handkerchief (understandably, for he frightens her with his serious talk about its magical properties). When Othello strikes her publicly Desdemona reproaches him briefly: 'I have not deserved this' (IV.1.240). She then accepts - and defends - his authority over her, as we see from her discussion with Emilia at the start of Act IV Scene 3. Desdemona asserts her loving loyalty and questions Othello bravely in Act IV Scene 2 (see lines 30-89) but is reduced to dumb misery when her husband calls her 'that cunning ***** of Venice' (IV.2.91): 'nor answer have I none' she says woefully (IV.2.105), remarking - girlishly - that she is 'a child to chiding' (IV.2.116).

  
  

  You need to ensure that you develop clear, well-supported arguments about the text. Start your paragraphs with topic sentences. For example, if you are writing about Desdemona as a romantic heroine, an opening topic sentence might be, 'In Act I, Scene 3, Desdemona is portrayed as a determined character with a strong commitment to loving.' Now go to the text to find proof of this.

  
  

  
  

  DESDEMONA'S FINAL WORDS:

  Ultimately Desdemona refuses to blame Othello for her unhappiness: she declares it is her 'wretched fortune' (IV.2.129). Marriage teaches Desdemona that 'men are not gods' (III.4.149) and this is a disappointment to her. But while Desdemona submits willingly to the man she chose to marry, she dies valiantly, fighting to be allowed to live and asserting her honesty. Her final words are intriguing and contradictory. Why does Desdemona take the blame for her own death? Is she trying to protect Othello in death as she sought to defend him in life? Or is she simply a victim asserting her own innocence? However we interpret Desdemona's final words, we will probably feel that the heroine's passivity in Act V Scene 2 contradicts her earlier assertiveness.

  
  

  
  

  DESDEMONA: IAGO'S VICTIM:

  While we will certainly blame Othello for killing Desdemona, we will also blame Iago. An audience may wonder how he feels about the woman whose reputation he so brutally destroys. In Act II Scene 1, Iago says that he 'love[s]' Desdemona, 'Not out of absolute lust' but 'Partly to diet mine own revenge' (II.1.289-92). He wants to be even with Othello 'wife for wife' (II.1.297). So Iago decides he will 'turn her virtue into pitch' (II.3.355).

  
  

  Does Iago ever regret what he does to Desdemona? E. A. J. Honigmann argues that Iago finds it difficult to respond to Desdemona in Act IV Scene 2 when he sees how miserable she is. There is one line of Iago that could be delivered with a hint of regret: 'Do not weep, do not weep: alas the day!' (IV.2.126). However, you may feel this is another example of Iago's ability to disassemble and further proof that Iago enjoys turning Desdemona into a victim.

  
  

  
  

  DESDEMONA'S BRAVERY:

  Desdemona defends her own honour throughout the play, shown when she says to Othello, 'By heaven, you do me wrong' (IV.2.82).

  
  

  Desdemona is still brave and assertive, even when Othello attacks her verbally and physically.

  The reference to heaven reinforces Desdemona's virtue.

  This is an example of irony and foreshadowing; Othello will refer to heaven just before he murders Desdemona.

  
  

  FURTHER KEY QUOTATIONS:

  Desdemona actively chose Othello and sees him as a hero: 'I saw Othello's visage in his mind/ And to his honours and his valiant parts/ Did I my soul and fortunes consecrate' (I.3.253).

  
  

  Love of Othello makes Desdemona submissive: 'my love doth so approve him/ That even his stubbornness, his checks, his frowns ... have grace and favour' (IV.3.17-19).

  
  

  Desdemona loves Othello to the bitter end. Her final words are: 'Commend me to my kind lord - O, farewell!' (V.2.122).

  
  

  For Othello, there are two Desdemona's. She is firstly his 'soul's joy' (II.1.182) but when he thinks she is unfaithful she becomes 'that cunning ***** of Venice' (IV.2.91).

  
  

  Desdemona is Iago's victim. His intention is to 'out of her own goodness make the net/ That shall enmesh them all' (II.3.356-7).
• CHARACTERISATION (AO1/2)

  Iago

  WHO IS IAGO?

  Iago is Othello's ensign. He has served with Othello in a number of military campaigns.

  
  

  Eaten up by Jealousy and hatred, Iago seeks to destroy Othello by poisoning his mind against Desdemona.

  
  

  THE MACHIAVEL:

  The Machiavel is based on a historical figure: the Florentine statesman Niccolò Machiavelli. One of Machiavelli's key teachings was that people sometimes need to act in apparently immoral ways if they are to maintain their power.

  
  

  Machiavelli's teachings exerted such a powerful influence throughout Western Europe that his name has given us the adjective 'Machiavellian' as well as the theatrical archetype.

  
  

  Arguably the best known Machiavel is Iago in William Shakespeare's 'Othello'. Iago speaks more lines than Othello: the part of Iago is actually one of the longest parts of any of Shakespeare's plays. He is scheming, manipulative, and so slippery and dishonest that one production of 'Othello' (the Synetic Theater production 2010) cast three performers in the role of Iago, with all three appearances of stage simultaneously to convey the multiplicity of Iago's character.

  
  

  
  

  MALCONTENT:

  The malcontent is a character type that often appeared in early modern drama. The character is discontent with the social structure and other characters in the play—and is often an outsider who observes and comments on the action, and may even acknowledge they are in a play.

  
  

  Iago's complaints in Act 1, Scene 1 about Othello's failure to promote him mean that he can also be seen as a malcontent. In Renaissance tragedy, malcontents were characters who perceived themselves to be slighted and were intent on gaining revenge.

  
  

  
  

  IAGO THE VILLAIN:

  Iago is a compelling and sophisticated villain. He is a part vice, part Machiavel and, like many villains in Renaissance drama, seems to be inherently evil. Shakespeare presents Iago as cynical, quick-witted and opportunistic - all qualities of stage villains in revenge tragedies. Iago revels in his ability to disassemble and destroy, but while he enjoys having an audience and outlines his plots clearly, he is also rather mysterious, especially when he refuses to speak at the end of the play. Iago's silence led Romantic poet and critic Samuel Taylor Coleridge to conclude that the ensign is an example of 'motiveless malignity'. Coleridge also viewed Iago as a 'being next to the devil'. In more recent times, Iago's role has been reassessed. Iago is no longer considered the epitome of evil. Instead, he can be seen as an example of an emotionally limited man, driven by petty professional jealousy and class consciousness. Like many stage villains, Iago is a source of irony and humour, which makes him appealing to audiences.

  
  

  When writing about Iago's evil it is important to be able to refer to it in relation to the literary and historical context of the play. For example, Iago demonstrates several characteristics of a typical Jacobean stage villain.

  
  

  
  

  IAGO'S MOTIVES:

  Critics are divided about whether or not Iago's motives are adequate or plausible. Many also question whether he believes in them himself. One school of thought suggests that Iago knows the things he says about others are not true, but that his desire for revenge demands that he has an explanation for his actions. Iago claims that professional jealousy is his initial motive for disgracing Cassio. He is certainly also envious of the 'daily beauty' in the lieutenant's life (V.1.19). In addition, Iago says that he believes Cassio has committed adultery with his wife, Emilia. Iago's relationship with Roderigo is driven by callous greed and when his 'purse' (I.3.381) becomes a dangerous inconvenience, he kills him. His motives for destroying Othello's happiness are driven by negative impulses. Iago holds a grudge against Othello for promoting Cassio over him. Iago is also eaten up with sexual jealousy. He says he hates Othello because he suspects the general has ''twixt my sheets ... done my office' (I.3.386-7). There is no evidence in the text to suggest he has been cuckolded, either by Othello or Cassio. It is tempting to add misogyny and racial prejudice to Iago's motives. Although he never says explicitly that he hates women or foreigners, his low opinion of them is clear in many of his speeches. Iago wants to degrade those he despises.

  
  

  
  

  IAGO'S SUCCESS:

  It's important that you are able to discuss why Iago is so successful. He is self-contained, egotistical and confident, and successful because he can play different roles. He enjoys his ability to hoodwink others into believing he is honest. With Cassio, he is coarse and genial when offering plausible practical advice. He adopts a similar sympathetic approach with Desdemona in Act IV Scene 2. With Montano and Lodovico he makes a point of stressing that he has Othello's and the Venetian state's best interests at heart. There seems to be an absence of ego in his dealings with these characters, who are socially and professionally superior to him. But this is deliberate and false. Iago can afford to be less cautious with those who are dependent on him. Pay close attention to his exchanges with Roderigo, and what they reveal.

  
  

  
  

  IAGO & OTHELLO:

  Iago's dealings with Othello reveal his real skill. It is possible to argue Iago seeks to replace Desdemona in Othello's affections. Although this is debatable, Iago certainly sets out to prove that he is true to Othello, while Desdemona is false. Gradually, the ensign assumes the control and power we associate with Othello. He is so successful that Othello begins to speak and think like the villain. How does the 'inhuman dog' (V.1.62) destroy the mind, soul and body of the noble, valiant Moor? Iago makes Othello believe that he is loyal, conscientious and noble-minded (these are of course - ironically - Othello's best qualities). Iago pretends that he would like to cudgel Othello's detractors in Act I Scene 2 and appears hesitant to describe his 'friend' Cassio's part in the drunken brawl. Iago's show of reluctance in Act III Scene 3 is devastatingly effective. Iago's role-playing enables him to become stage manager and dramatist, controlling his victims' fates.

  
  

  
  

  IAGO ON STAGE & SCREEN:

  Iago has been played by a number of famous actors, including the Victorian actor Henry Irving, who covered his face with his hands at line 393 in Act I Scene 3 when he said 'let's see'. Irving took a long pause before slowly withdrawing his hands to reveal a face which was, according to one spectator, 'all alive with the devilish scheme which had come into his mind'.

  
  

  Iago's facial expressions are also key in the 1989 and 1995 TV/film productions, in which he speaks directly to camera in close-up, drawing the viewer in. Many soliloquies are whispered coolly and ferociously, through clenched teeth. The line 'I hate the Moor' (I.3.385) is emphasised slowly and very bitterly by the Iagos of Ian McKellen and Kenneth Branagh. In a 1995 film, the director Oliver Parker chose to emphasise Iago's brutality towards his wife. During the scene when Emilia gives Iago Desdemona's handkerchief, the villain is lying on top of, and hurting, his wife.

  
  

  
  

  IAGO'S LIMITATIONS:

  Does Iago's crude world view indicate that he is a petty character whose cleverness is superficial? The end of the play proves that you cannot hoodwink everyone all of the time: Iago is foolish to believe that he can. An assessment of Iago must acknowledge his terrible achievements as well as his ultimate failure. The villain succeeds in destroying a marriage and two noble characters, as well as his wife and Roderigo. On the other hand, we must also take into account Iago's refusal to speak at the end of the play. When he takes refuge in silence does Iago reassert his power one last time despite his inevitable fate?

  
  

  The theatre critic Susannah Clapp reviewed a production of Othello in 2007. She said that Iago was portrayed as 'the thinker' while Othello was a 'feeler'. Is this how you see these two characters? The actor Dominic West, who played Iago in 2011, said that 'it's much easier to make a devil interesting'. Do you agree that Iago is more interesting than the other characters in Othello?

  
  

  
  

  UNDERSTANDING IAGO'S ABUSE OF DESDEMONA:

  Iago's plan is to use Desdemona's virtue to destroy Othello. He says 'out of her own goodness [he will] make the net/ That shall enmesh them all' (II.3.356-7).

  
  

  The imagery suggests that Iago is setting a trap for his prey.

  The imagery here also suggests Iago has contempt for innocence and goodness.

  Iago's intended exploitation of Desdemona's goodness prepares us for his abuse of the other female characters, Emilia and Bianca, later in the play.
• CHARACTERISATION (AO1/2)

  Cassio

  WHO IS CASSIO?

  Cassio is a Florentine soldier, who is promoted by Othello for the post of lieutenant.

  
  

  He acted as a go-between during the courtship of Othello & Desdemona.

  
  

  Cassio is disgraced when he is involved in a drunken brawl, but is made governor of Cyprus at the end of the play.

  
  

  
  

  CASSIO THE SOLDIER:

  In Act I Scene 1 we are offered a belittling portrait of Cassio by Iago. Iago presents Cassio as an inexperienced soldier, a mere 'arithmetician' (I.1.18) who has been promoted beyond his deserving. Perhaps this is a case of sour grapes. Iago is jealous of Cassio's promotion. However, there is some evidence that Cassio lacks military judgement. When Othello leaves him in charge, Cassio ends up drunk in a fight. Instead of keeping order and discipline, he creates confusion and alarm. This seems inexcusable, since he has already confessed to having a weak head for drink. Perhaps Cassio's military inexperience is meant to serve as another parallel with Othello, who is an inexperienced lover - despite their inexperience both men take their roles seriously. Because he is made governor of Cyprus at the end of the play, we are encouraged to dwell on Cassio's strengths rather than weaknesses as a soldier.

  
  

  
  

  CASSIO & OTHELLO:

  Michael Cassio's primary function in the play is to offer a point of comparison with Othello. Both soldiers are outsiders who have chosen to serve Venice. Both value their reputations highly. But there the similarities end. Cassio, as an educated Florentine gentleman, is a cultural insider while Othello, due to his race, would have been seen as a cultural outsider. Florence had a reputation as a city of culture so, unlike his general, Cassio is a social sophisticate. Othello's relationship with his lieutenant mirrors his relationship with his wife. At the start of the play, when Othello is 'well tuned' (II.1.198) with Desdemona, his relationship with Cassio is good. Iago destroys this harmony by creating a fictitious love-triangle. Cassio assisted Othello while he was courting Desdemona but Iago is able to turn this act of loyalty into proof of treachery. At the end of the play Cassio is associated with the restoration of order in Cyprus when he replaces Othello. Cassio's generous tribute to Othello at the end of the play also reminds us how great the hero was. It is fitting that the loyal lieutenant offers the last comment on the 'valiant Moor' (I.3.48).

  
  

  
  

  CASSIO & IAGO:

  Cassio's worst qualities are revealed when he is under Iago's influence. This gives us another point of comparison between Cassio and Othello. Iago pretends to be a loyal friend to both men. Iago claims that both men have slept with Emilia, giving him a motive for revenge against both of them. It is to his credit that Cassio is as easy to fool as Othello; to Shakespeare's audience, this would have been proof of his honesty.

  
  

  Iago is able to play on Cassio's frailties in the same way that he exploits Othello. He takes advantage of the lieutenant's courtesy, recognising that Cassio's weakness lies in the fact that he is 'handsome, young and hath all those requisites in him that folly and green minds look after' (II.1.243-5).

  
  

  By plying him with drink Iago is able to manoeuvre Cassio out of the way and replace him as Othello's right-hand man. From this position of strength, Iago is then able to make Cassio's virtues look like vices. He uses Cassio's courtesy against him and makes his shame look like guilt. Like Othello, Cassio is a puppet in Iago's hands.

  
  

  
  

  CASSIO THE LOVER:

  It is possible to feel that Cassio's gallantry is a little overworked at times. However, an audience can see that the lieutenant's praise of Desdemona is innocent and sincere. Later in the play Cassio's gentlemanly exterior seems to conceal some unsavoury qualities. These are revealed through his interaction with Bianca. Cassio's treatment of his mistress is often callous. While he does show her some affection, Cassio also refers to Bianca contemptuously as a 'bauble' (IV.1.134), and compares her to a 'fitchew' (a polecat, IV.1.145). Polecats were considered smelly and lecherous, so this is a very abusive term. It is hard not to judge Cassio harshly when he tells Bianca to be gone because he does not want to be found 'womaned' (III.4.194). Cassio can be accused of using women in the same way that Iago does. Rather than facing up to Othello he enlists the help of Emilia, then Desdemona to plead his case. Cassio may not 'steal away so guilty-like' (III.3.38), as Iago suggests, but is it not spineless to leave Desdemona to defend him?

  
  

  It is essential that Cassio hang back for the purposes of the plot. And we cannot blame the lieutenant for relying on female intervention. Iago has persuaded Cassio that his best hopes lie in winning over Desdemona first. To Shakespeare's audience Cassio's casual liaison with a young courtesan would not have been enough to detract from his good qualities. We have to remember the 'daily beauty' (V.1.19) of Cassio's life that Iago detests so much. Overall, we may conclude Cassio's worthiness outweighs his weakness. Writing in 1765, Dr Johnson had a very positive view of Cassio's character. He said that 'Cassio is brave, benevolent, and honest'.

  
  

  It is important to show you understand that there are different ways of responding to characters and their actions for AO2, and compare and contrast the ways characters are portrayed in different scenes and why. For example, why is Cassio portrayed as gallant and courteous when he speaks to Desdemona in Act II, but as a reluctant and abusive lover of Bianca?

  
  

  
  

  CASSIO'S LOSS OF HONOUR:

  Cassio is full of shame when he is dismissed from his post by Othello: 'O, I have lost my reputation, I have lost the immortal part of myself - and what remains is bestial' (II.3.258-60).

  
  

  Cassio's obsession with his reputation mirrors Othello's obsession.

  Cassio's sorrow over losing his profession foreshadows Othello's misery when he thinks he has lost Desdemona's love.

  The reference to being 'bestial' foreshadows Othello's downfall - Othello will become 'bestial' himself when he avenges his masculine honour.

  
  

  
  

  FURTHER KEY QUOTATIONS:

  Cassio's charm & courtesy, welcoming Desdemona to Cyprus: 'O, beyold,/The riches of the ship is come on shore:/You men of Cyprus, let her have your knees!' (Act III, Scene 1)

  
  

  Cassio's abusive treatment of Bianca: 'I do attend here on the general/ And think it no addition, not my wish,/ To have him see me womaned' (Part III, Scene 4)

  
  

  Cassio's generous tribute to Othello: 'he was great of heart' (Act V, Scene 2)
• CHARACTERISATION (AO1/2)

  Emilia

  WHO IS EMILIA:

  Emilia is Iago's wife and Desdemona's lady in waiting in Cyprus.

  
  

  
  

  EMILIA'S LOYALTY:

  Emilia tries to be a loyal wife and servant but her loyalty is repeatedly tested by the incidents surrounding the handkerchief. Emilia makes the wrong moral choice when she gives the handkerchief to Iago because he 'hath a hundred times/ Wooed me to steal it' (III.3.296-7). Emilia does this, knowing Desdemona 'so loves the token ... That she reserves it evermore about her' (III.3.297-9). Will the audience blame Emilia for putting her husband's 'fantasy' (III.3.303) before her mistress's peace of mind? Emilia's loyalty is tested again when Desdemona wonders how she lost the handkerchief. Emilia's lie - 'I know not, madam' (III.4.24) - makes us uncomfortable. Emilia's loyalty is tested for a final time in Act V. Now Emilia puts Desdemona first. She tells the truth about the handkerchief and betrays Iago. She has chosen good over evil.

  
  

  
  

  EMILIA & IAGO:

  Emilia's relationship with Iago is a chilling example of marital disharmony. Whatever love is left is felt by Emilia, who tries to please Iago by giving him the handkerchief. Iago's attitude towards his wife is proprietorial and controlling. Iago is suspicious that Othello has cuckolded him, and dislikes the courtesy Cassio shows Emilia when she first arrives in Cyprus. Iago is jealous not because he loves Emilia, but because he feels his own position is being threatened. We see the couple alone together only once, in Act III Scene 3. Iago treats Emilia contemptuously. He asks her sharply what she's doing alone, implying that her movements should be directed entirely by him. He also insults Emilia as 'a foolish wife' (III.3.308), but when he realises she has the handkerchief, his tone softens: now Emilia is a 'good wench' (III.3.317).

  
  

  Iago's public treatment of Emilia is as dismissive as the way he speaks to her in private. In Act IV Scene 2, Iago is annoyed when Emilia refers to Iago's false suspicion that Othello cuckolded him. Iago's short lines sound like threats: 'Speak within doors' (IV.2.146) and 'You are a fool, go to' (IV.2.150). In Act V, Iago's verbal abuse intensifies just before he kills her. When she betrays the truth about the handkerchief he calls Emilia a 'Villainous *****!' and 'Filth' (V.2.227, 229). These words encapsulate the disrespect Iago feels for all women. The audience will be pleased that it is his abused wife who brings about her villainous husband's downfall.

  
  

  
  

  EMILIA & SEXUAL POLITICS:

  Emilia is a useful character to focus on if you are discussing the sexual politics of the play. It comes as no surprise that Emilia is cynical about men. Her own match has afforded her little pleasure. Shakespeare gives Emilia a distinctive and increasingly assertive female voice. She uses it to defend herself and her sex. She replies sharply when Iago derides women in Act II Scene 1: 'You shall not write my praise' (II.1.116). In Act III Scene 4 we see that Emilia is more realistic about the male-female relationships than Desdemona. Discussing marriage she says, ''Tis not a year or two shows us a man./ They are all but stomachs, and we all but food' (III.4.104-5). The audience will appreciate Emilia speaks from bitter experience. In the willow song scene, notice how Emilia insists that women have the same appetites as men and the same right to 'revenge' if they are badly treated (IV.3.92).

  
  

  
  

  EMILIA'S JUDGEMENT:

  It is difficult not to agree with some of Emilia's harsh judgements of Othello and we know that she is absolutely right to betray Iago. However, you could consider how Emilia's pragmatism about men and women is perhaps not very removed from Iago's cynicism. Look at Emilia's defence of adultery in Act III Scene 4. She speaks theoretically here, but her casual acceptance of sin is perhaps an indication that Emilia is too crude a moraliser to be relied on completely as a judge of Othello's character in the final scene. Should we conclude that Emilia's female voice is trustworthy, but not infallible?

  
  

  
  

  EMILIA & DESDEMONA:

  Emilia is Desdemona's comforter and protector of her honour. She plays the role that Othello should have played for his wife. As Desdemona becomes less assertive in the second half of the play Emilia's role becomes more important. She becomes her mistress's energetic defender, voicing the audience's outrage at the treatment Desdemona receives. In her role as a defender, she is selfless and sharp-witted. She describes Othello's destructive jealousy accurately. Emilia is also wise without knowing it when she says angrily, 'The Moor's abused by some most villainous knave' (IV.2.141). In the final scene, Emilia becomes the voice of truth and stops Iago's evil progress. Her final lines reconfirm her own and her mistress's honesty: 'So come my soul to bliss as I speak true!/ So speaking as I think, alas, I die' (V.2.248-9). It seems fitting that Emilia should die beside the mistress she defended with her dying breath.

  
  

  You need to make precise points rather than sweeping generalisations. This is especially important when writing about language and imagery. For example, rather than saying 'there is a lot of imagery of jealousy in the play', try to comment on a specific example: 'In Act III Scene 4, Emilia defines jealousy as ... which shows us that ...'

  
  

  EMILIA'S SUSPICIONS:

  There remain two questions to be asked about Emilia. Firstly, why does she give the handkerchief to Iago when she does not know why he wants it? Emilia regrets giving it to him the moment he takes possession of it, suggesting that she is uneasy about his motives. Secondly, does Emilia suspect her husband before she finally speaks out? Perhaps the answer is yes. When she hears that Iago led Othello to believe Desdemona was false she says, 'I think upon't, I think I smell't, O villainy!/ I thought so then: I'll kill myself for grief!' (V.2.188-9). Her words suggest guilt at keeping quiet about her suspicions. However, Emilia's horrified repeated question 'My husband?' (V.2.138, 142, 145) could be seen as proof that Emilia knew nothing of Iago's villainy. Like Roderigo, whom Iago also brutally silences, Emilia realises the true extent of her husband's evil when it is too late.

  
  

  
  

  EMILIA'S COMMENTS OF JEALOUSY:

  Emilia says 'jealous souls ... are not ever jealous for the cause, ... [Jealousy] is a monster/ Begot upon itself, born on itself' (III.4.159-62).

  
  

  These lines describe Iago's jealousy; he takes revenge on Cassio and Othello without a genuine 'cause'.

  These words suggest Othello's jealousy will feed itself.

  The personification of jealousy links it to the handkerchief.

  It is ironic that Emilia is the wise expert on jealousy, when she seems to have no clue about Iago's villainy.
• CHARACTERISATION (AO1/2)

  Brabantio

  WHO IS BRABANTIO?

  Brabantio is the Venetian senator and Desdemona's father.

  
  

  
  

  BRABANTIO THE SENATOR:

  Brabantio is an important man used to commanding others. Ironically, these are qualities he shares with his son-in-law Othello. We are led to believe that Brabantio is a valuable member of the council, well respected by others. The Duke says that he was missed during the discussions about the Turkish invasion, and takes the trouble to reconcile Brabantio to Desdemona's marriage. However, we might feel that Brabantio's professional judgement is questionable. He resolutely refuses to acknowledge Othello's worth, unlike the rest of the Venetian senators. Ironically, like Othello, Brabantio puts his private affairs before affairs of state. Brabantio insists the council put Othello on trial for witchcraft in Act I Scene 3 when they are more concerned with the military fate of Cyprus.

  
  

  For the best grades, you must demonstrate an understanding of the social and historical context of Othello. When commenting on the play, remember that Shakespeare lived in a patriarchal society and consider the different ways Elizabethan and modern audiences might respond to Desdemona's behaviour towards her father in Act I.

  
  

  
  

  BRABANTIO THE PATRIARCH:

  Brabantio plays the role of the wronged patriarch. Shakespeare's audience may have felt his wrongs more deeply than we do today. They would have recognised Desdemona's elopement as an assault on patriarchy. Like Juliet in Romeo and Juliet, the treasured daughter denies her father's right to dispose of her in marriage as he sees fit. Brabantio sees this as a 'gross revolt' (I.1.132) against the natural order. He reminds Desdemona that it is her duty to obey him in Act I Scene 3 (see lines 175-9). Brabantio holds what would have been recognised by Shakespeare's audience as traditional, suspicious views of foreigners. These views come across in Brabantio's descriptions of Othello as a 'foul thief' (I.2.62) who has bewitched Desdemona. To a modern audience, these views seem racist. Brabantio suggests that Desdemona's marriage to Othello undermines not just his own authority, but the whole social order.

  
  

  
  

  BRABANTIO'S LOVE FOR DESDEMONA:

  Brabantio has not been an unsympathetic parent. Until the elopement, his home has been a place of family harmony. Othello has been entertained often and Brabantio has been a friendly host. Any audience would understand Brabantio's desire to find a suitable match for his daughter. His paternal love of Desdemona has been wise. He rejected the unworthy Roderigo, as we see when he sternly reminds the failed suitor that Desdemona 'is not for thee' (I.1.97). Brabantio has also allowed Desdemona to reject suitors herself. Brabantio's descriptions of Desdemona in the Senate scene may not fit with the confident young woman we see when she appears, but Brabantio recognises his daughter's virtues and cares for her deeply.

  
  

  Not all of Brabantio's speeches about losing his daughter are unsympathetic. In Act, I Scene 3 it clear that the loss of Desdemona weighs very heavily on his soul. He says 'my particular grief/ Is of so flood-gate and o'erbearing nature/ That it engluts and swallows other sorrows' (I.3.57-9). Brabantio's sense of loss is profound. The intense emotion described in this speech foreshadows Othello's outraged feelings when he believes he has been betrayed by Desdemona. It is ironic that the reluctant father and his son-in-law are linked by the language of loss they use. Like Othello, Brabantio dies grieving for his lost love. We are told Desdemona's marriage was 'mortal [fatal] to him' (V.2.203).

  
  

  
  

  AN UNSYMPATHETIC CHARACTER:

  Make sure you can identify the factors that cause us to lose sympathy with Brabantio. His immovable unkindness to Desdemona and Othello prevents us from sympathising with the patriarch wholeheartedly. Brabantio refuses to have anything to do with his daughter after her marriage and he casts Desdemona off. He says cruelly that he would rather 'adopt a child than get it' (I.3.192). Brabantio's final words to Othello are a harsh warning: 'Look to her, Moor, if thou hast eyes to see:/ She has deceived her father and may thee' (I.3.293- 4). The loving, generous father is replaced by a mean-spirited prophet of doom. Brabantio also proves to be too selfishly materialistic. His use of the word 'jewel' (I.3.196) to describe Desdemona suggests that he regards his daughter like a possession. We also come to question Brabantio's judgement when he says it would have been better if Roderigo had 'had' Desdemona rather than Othello. At the same time, it is important to remember that Brabantio is another victim of Iago's manipulation. His unfavourable view of Othello is influenced heavily by the ensign's crude and prejudiced characterisation of the Moor.

  
  

  
  

  BRABANTIO'S OUTRAGE:

  Brabantio is outraged by the Senate's willingness to accept Othello's elopement with Desdemona: 'For if such actions may have passage free/ Bond-slaves and pagans shall our statesman be' (I.2.98-9).

  
  

  Brabantio sees Othello as a threat to social order and stability.

  We are reminded of Othello's history - he was taken into slavery before he became a general.

  These words reveal the social attitudes of many people in Shakespeare's society: Brabantio implies slaves and foreigners should not be treated as equals.

  
  

  
  

  MALE DOMINANCE IN 'OTHELLO':

  - Brabantio as a father figure.

  - Othello and Iago as husbands.

  
  

  Brabantio is an indulgent father until Desdemona defies him when he becomes tyrannical.

  Othello is as loving as Brabantio early on but becomes domineering when he starts to mistrust Desdemona. He exerts control over her, labelling and interrogating her.

  Othello's murder of Desdemona suggests he believes he has the right to determine his wife's fate.

  Iago is an oppressive husband, who silences Emilia by killing her when she disobeys him.

  All of these male figures treat the women like possessions they have the right to instruct, control and dominate.
• CHARACTERISATION (AO1/2)

  Roderigo

  WHO IS RODERIGO?

  Roderigo is a wealthy Venetian gentleman who had hoped to marry Desdemona.

  
  

  He is Iago's first victim and is exploited for his money and in the plot to kill Cassio.

  
  

  
  

  RODERIGO: VICTIM OR VILLAIN?

  As a disappointed suitor, Roderigo represents the 'curled darlings' (I.2.68) that Desdemona rejected, providing us with a point of comparison with noble Othello.

  
  

  Roderigo has extremely poor judgement and his actions are generally despicable. Often he seems villainous - he has no concern for Desdemona's feelings, making him a potential abuser of women. He shares responsibility with Iago for prejudicing Brabantio's view of Desdemona's elopement. In Cyprus, Roderigo participates in the attempt on Cassio's life without feeling convinced that his intended victim deserves to die. However, Roderigo is corrupted by Iago and not wholly bad, merely weak and foolish. He lacks resolution or volition and has to be directed offstage many times. Roderigo is suspicious of Iago but allows himself to be talked round.

  
  

  It is possible to see Roderigo as another outsider in Othello. Iago keeps him on the fringes of the action, ensuring that he remains powerless. Roderigo's miserable end seems a cruel fate. Like Othello, he realises the truth about Iago too late. There is some rehabilitation of Roderigo's character in the final scene when his letters are discovered, revealing the truth about Iago's plots. Perhaps Roderigo, like Othello, is both victim and villain?

  
  

  It's essential that you go beyond the description of plot and character. For example, if you are writing about Roderigo's role in the play, you could consider the dramatic significance of his actions and comment on the way in which Roderigo's interactions with Iago contribute to your understanding of the presentation of the theme of deception. If you are writing about the theme of love, you could comment on Roderigo's role as thwarted lover, comparing him with Othello.

  
  

  
  

  THE SUBPLOT:

  Notice how the subplot involving Roderigo is linked very closely to the main plot, so much so that they become interwoven. Roderigo's primary role is to enable the audience to gain insight into Iago's methods. In his exchanges with the 'poor trash of Venice' (II.1.301) the ensign Iago's evil nature is revealed. In the subplot Iago exploits Roderigo for his money, promising his victim that he will be able to enjoy Desdemona's sexual favours. In Cyprus, Iago propels Roderigo into the main plot. Roderigo is used as a pawn in two key scenes: the drinking scene where Cassio is provoked, and then the attack on Cassio's life in Act V. It seems appropriate that Roderigo is the first of Iago's victims to die: he was the first to be taken in. What other parallels between the main plot and the subplot can you find?

  
  

  
  

  RODERIGO'S DEATH:

  When he dies Roderigo calls Iago an 'inhuman dog' (V.1.61).

  
  

  Roderigo realises the truth about Iago too late and is ironically the first to recognise his villainy.

  The imagery of dogs is used repeatedly to describe Iago in Act V; it reinforces the audience's sense of Iago's vicious character.

  It is darkly ironic that Othello will also use dog imagery just before he kills himself, linking his evil actions to Iago's influence.
• CHARACTERISATION (AO1/2)

  Bianca


  WHO IS BIANCA?

  Bianca is a courtesan, who is in love with Cassio.

  A courtesan = A prostitute, especially one with wealthy or upper-class clients.

  
  

  
  

  BIANCA THE VICTIM:

  Bianca is used and abused in Othello. She is seen only in relation to the male characters and is always in a vulnerable position. Cassio is prepared to dally with but not marry her. Iago accuses her of involvement in the plot to kill Cassio to distract attention away from himself. Bianca's vulnerability is a result of her social position, as well as her treatment by the male characters. As a prostitute, Bianca's only power lies in her ability to attract customers. If they choose to abuse her, Bianca's voice counts for nothing because her profession makes her morally dubious. Love also makes Bianca vulnerable. As Iago puts it, ''tis the strumpet's plague/ To beguile many and be beguiled by one' (IV.1.97-8). The irony is that Bianca is more honest and true than the outwardly honourable men who abuse her. Bianca's victimisation by Iago in Act V Scene 1 prepares us for the deaths of the other female victims in the final scene.

  
  

  
  

  BIANCA THE LOVER:

  Bianca's relationship with Cassio is less idealistic than the Othello-Desdemona match. However, Cassio is clearly more to Bianca than a mere 'customer'. Cassio tells us that 'she haunts me in every place' (IV.1.132-3), suggesting that Bianca is smitten with him. This explains her indignation about the handkerchief, which Bianca believes must be 'some minx's token' (IV.1.152). Bianca's unfounded jealousy mirrors Othello's. However, does Shakespeare suggest that Bianca has more plausible reasons for her jealousy than Othello? Notice how Bianca uses the word 'cause' when she complains about Cassio's week-long absence from her. She says woefully, 'To the felt absence now I feel a cause' (III.4.182). Her words foreshadow Othello's opening line in the final scene when he repeats 'It is the cause' (V.2.1) to justify killing his wife. It is worth thinking about why Shakespeare links Bianca and Othello linguistically.

  
  

  Cassio and Bianca make up, unlike the tragic central couple. We know this because Cassio is dining with Bianca before he is wounded in the final scene. In Act V, Bianca's genuine love for Cassio is seen when she discovers her lover has been stabbed: 'Alas, he faints! O Cassio, Cassio, Cassio!' (V.1.84). Her constancy in love links Bianca to Desdemona. Unlike the stereotypical crude and aggressive prostitute of much Renaissance drama, Bianca is a faithful lover.

  
  

  
  

  BIANCA'S POWERLESSNESS:

  When Cassio sends her away because he doesn't want to be seen with her Bianca says: ''Tis very good: I must be circumstanced' (III.4.202).

  
  

  Bianca's words reveal how powerless she is.

  Bianca has to be content with the way men treat her, just like Desdemona.

  Bianca's acceptance of Cassio's authority over her foreshadows Desdemona's words and actions in Act IV Scene 2.
• OTHELLO' AS A TRAGEDY:

  For the earliest and much the most influential discussion of the nature of tragedy, we must turn to the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. In his 'Poetics', a treatise of aesthetic theory, he analysed the nature and effect of the tragedies of the Greek dramatists Sophocles, Aeschylus and Euripides. Aristotle's identification of a number of key aspects of dramatic tragedy, and the terms he used to describe them have been standard features of all subsequent accounts of the genre. He argued that the plot of a tragedy should concern only a single, but significant, action; that its hero should be a person of exceptional stature, who should undergo a reversal of fortune ('peripeteia'), brought about by his pride ('hubris') or error of judgement ('hamartia'); and that the hero should experience a moment of realisation or recognition of the truth of his situation ('anagnorisis'). Aristotle held that literature is mimetic - in other words, that it represents actual life - and that the powerful representation of the hero's tragic decline aroused in the audience feelings of sympathy, pity, awe and fear to the extent that they were purged or purified of their experience. For this experience, Aristotle used the word 'catharsis'.

  
  

  These ideas and terms have been extremely influential on all subsequent discussions of tragedy, particularly during the Renaissance and the eighteenth century even though critics and commentators have never been able to agree exactly what Aristotle meant by them.

  
  

  Although Shakespeare knew no Greek and certainly did not model his plays on the work of Greek dramatists, they can be applied helpfully to Shakespearean tragedy. His tragedies evoke a sense of momentousness, as they deal with the fate of the great figures in the state, with kings and princes whose deaths have repercussions throughout the kingdom. His protagonists are not only socially elevated; they are also figures of, if not exceptional talent or virtue, then the exceptional presence and exceptional character.
• OTHELLO AS A TRAGIC HERO:

  Aristotle said that a tragic hero must go through four stages. These are Peripeteia, which is an utter and complete downfall from a very high status to catastrophe and misery. Hamartia, which is a fatal or tragic flaw in the hero. Anagnorsis, which is recognition of the hero's mistakes, and Catharsis, which is when the audience is purged of all negative emotions towards the hero.

  
  

  ONE POINT OF VIEW:

  Shakespeare's 'Othello' tells the story of one man's fall from happiness to utter despair. This is achieved by Othello's fatal flaws - his jealousy and pride. Othello's own fatal flaws lead him to his demise, not Iago's manipulation. This point of view is supported in Professor Crawford's article 'Othello as a tragic hero'. In his article, Crawford conveys the idea that the misfortunes that befall Iago are because of Othello himself - drama of character - not by Iago or any outside social forces - drama of intrigue.

  
  

  Because of this, Othello can be described as a drama of character, meaning that it is an internal conflict within the main character Othello. Othello is the one at fault for the terrible vents in the play. In order to fully understand what a tragedy is one must understand the characteristics of what a tragedy and a tragic hero is according to Aristotle. Aristotle indicates that in order to be a tragic hero is to not be perfect; the character is fallible. The character's fatal flaw or hamartia is the weakness that will ultimately lead to the character's demise.

  
  

  And for the play to be a tragedy, the protagonist must be a person of high standing in society and that the character must fall from power and happiness in the end. This can be seen in 'Othello' when at the beginning of the play Othello is introduced as a great man of power and high status to the rest of the characters. This can be seen during Act 1, Scene III, the duke and a couple of Senators of Venice were discussing issues and when Othello enters the room and the Senators say, 'Here comes Barbantio and the valiant Moor'. By saying this, the Senators make it clear that they hold Othello in high esteem.

  
  

  
  

  CRITICS VIEW:

  For many years there has been a great deal of controversy over the character of Othello in Shakespeare's play. Critics have debated the extent to which Othello can be considered a tragic hero, but there are two critics views that are held within higher consideration than the others.

  
  

  The first of these critics is A. C. Bradley who believes that Othello is one of the greatest of all tragic heroes. The latter of these critics is F. R. Leavis who believes that Othello does not truly qualify for the tragic hero status. Bradley and Leavis both agree on the fact that Othello never reaches complete Peripeteia, but for vastly different reasons, A .C. Bradley's argument is that "The Othello of the fourth act is Othello during his downfall. His fall is never complete but his grandeur remains almost undiminished". This demonstrates to us that Bradley accepts the fact that Othello's downfall is never truly complete, but he remains steadfast in his view that Othello retains some form of nobility and honour. He sees Othello as "virtually faultless". We can see this when he says "Othello does not belong to our world, and he seems to enter it we not know whence - almost as if from a wonderland". This displays to us the extent to which Bradley sees Othello as a pure, faultless figure.
• HAMARTIA:


  For literary tragedies, it is that conflict that drives the story. If the conflict is outside the protagonist, then it is an external conflict. In that case, the tragedy focuses on the protagonist battling that external force, be it another character, war, acts of God, etc. However, many times, especially in the classics, the conflict is much more psychological and is what is called internal conflict. Internal conflicts come from within the character himself.

  
  

  In literary tragedies, the protagonist must be very courageous and noble. So, how then would a character so inherently good have an internal conflict? Aristotle, who analysed the classic Greek dramas, came to this conclusion: the protagonist must have some sort of 'error or frailty' which brings about his/her own adversity. This frailty is called hamartia or internal tragic flaw. It is this flaw which leads the character to struggle. Harmatia, however, is only one type of internal conflict. Some characters have serious internal conflicts, but they do not lead to their own downfall. It is only considered hamartia if that flaw leads to the character's destruction.

  
  

  Hamartia is extremely important to many classic tragedies. For example, look at Shakespeare's Othello. Othello was a powerful leader who deeply loved his faithful wife. He was tricked into believing his wife had cheated on him. His suspicion then overpowered him and he murdered his wife in a jealous rage, never even giving her a chance to defend herself. When he discovers he was deceived, he remains a noble character. He realised everything was his own fault and punished himself by committing suicide. Othello's Hamartia, or internal tragic flaw, is his extreme jealousy. It is jealousy that enables him to be tricked and allows him to create his own destruction. Hamartia is an integral element of tragedy.
• HUBRIS:


  Othello's Hubris:

  In 'Othello' the protagonist's (Othello's) anagnorisis is much shorter. In 'Othello', it comes just before Othello's suicide, when he recognises that Iago has deceived him and tells Lodovico and Cassio what he wants his epitaph to be:

  'Then you must speak

  Of one that loved not so wisely but too well,

  Of one not easily jealous but, being wrought,

  Perplexed in the extreme; of one whose hand,

  Like the base Indian, threw a pearl away

  Richer than all his tribe...'

  (Othello, Act 5, Scene 2)
• MEGALOPSYCHIA:


  high-mindedness
• FATE & INEVITABILITY:


  OTHELLO'S DOWNFALL IS INEVITABLE:

  Othello's destruction by Iago is inevitable due to a combination of Iago's plotting and Othello's character flaws. Iago's cunning character in Shakespeare's play has identified Othello's vulnerability through flaws of jealousy, trust, poor judgment, naivety and love for the fair Desdemona. Iago's pure hate for the Moor leads to the success of Othello's downfall through Iago's manipulative and conniving plotting. Perhaps, without Iago's clever plotting Othello might have had a chance to communicate with and learn to truly know Desdemona's truth before his weaknesses were ignited.

  
  

  However, the reality is that Iago did successfully plot Othello's downfall and is simply unavoidable with the combination of both the scheming and Othello's flaws. Othello's love for Desdemona is so pure and new that the slightest presumption of dishonesty, planted by Iago, is manipulated and exaggerated to turn Othello's love for her into madness and murder. Act 1, Scene II, 'For know, Iago, / But that I love the gentle Desdemona,/ I would not my unhousèd free condition / Put into circumscription and confine / For the sea's worth.' He describes the greatness for his love for Desdemona and how he wouldn't give it up for all the riches in the sea. The greatness of Othello's character at the beginning leads the audience to honour him and convinces them he is strong enough to endure the evilness of his tragic fate.
• CATHARSIS:


  Order & Disorder:

  Chaos is closely linked to disorder - the state that ensues once the protagonist's hamartia has set the plot in motion. An important part of tragedy is, therefore, the restoration of order. The process of catharsis, in fact, depends on this restoration: in order for catharsis to take place, members of the audience must experience a rebalancing of their emotions.
• PATHOS:


  Appeal to emotion
• ANAGORISIS:

  (Recognition)


  Recognition or discovery on the part of the hero; change from ignorance to knowledge.

  
  

  In classical tragedy, protagonists should experience a period of anagnorisis, when they gain new insight into both their initial pride and the folly that resulted from it.

  
  

  When he discovers, he remains a noble character. He realised everything was his own fault and punished himself by committing suicide.

  
  

  The protagonist's anagnorisis in much shorter in 'Othello', it comes before Othello's suicide, when he recognises that Iago has deceived him and tells Lodovico and Cassio what he wants his epitaph to be.

  'Then must you speak

  Of one that loved not wisely but too well,

  Of one not easily jealous but, being wrought,

  Perplexed in the extreme; of one whose hand,

  Like the base Indian, threw a pearl away

  Richer than all his tribe...'

  (Othello, Act 5, Scene 2)
• PERIPETEIA:

  (Reversal)

  The reversal of fortune experienced by the tragic protagonist.

  
  

  Aristotle defines peripeteia as "a change of a situation into its opposite, and this too must accord with the probable or the inevitable." This reversal of fortune is done for the dramatic effect of taking some lofty character of high status or moral worth and bringing them down into emotional despair or ethical dearth. In Aristotle's words, this is a Recognition or discovery on the part of the hero; change from ignorance to knowledge.

  
  

  Every tragedy worthy of the title follows this formula; Alcestis shows a man of stature, Admetus, who gains supernatural favour from Apollo but loses everything by the end of the play.

  
  

  In the Odyssey, the action of reversal is only beginning, whereas in tragedy this would be the final moment that evokes catharsis from the audience. In both, the reversal is a central plot point that affects the action. Odysseus battles obstacles to return home, but his fortune has already turned sour, so blocks come up at every turn, and it takes divine intervention to complete his return to nobility.

  
  

  However, A. C. Bradley who believes that Othello is one of the greatest of all tragic heroes. The latter of these critics is F. R. Leavis who believes that Othello does not truly qualify for the tragic hero status. Bradley and Leavis both agree on the fact that Othello never reaches complete Peripeteia
• SUFFERING & CHAOS:


  Suffering is an integral part of tragedy, but this suffering takes place on a number of different forms.

  Suffering Protagonists undergo:

  Othello's mental torment at Desdemona's supposed infidelity.
• DISGUISE, DECEPTION & DISCOVERY:

  There are obvious examples of disguise and deception in tragedy. Sometimes disguise is a means of self-preservation.

  
  

  Iago - who states openly in Act 1, Scene 1 of 'Othello' that 'I am not what I am' - is at that point very clear as to what he wants his deception to achieve.
• THEMES (AO1/2)

  Jealousy

  JEALOUSY & DESTRUCTION:

  Jealousy is a form of tyranny in Othello. It destroys love, honour and nobility in those it afflicts. It makes both male protagonists murderous and violent. It also seems that it is the nature of jealousy not to be satisfied. Iago continues plotting against Cassio after he has disgraced him and is not content with disturbing Othello's peace of mind: he must continue until Desdemona is dead. Othello's jealous thoughts are characterised by references to acts of violence against Desdemona. He says he will 'tear her all to pieces!' (III.3.434) or 'chop her into messes' (IV.1.197). Othello also wants to torture and kill his supposed rival Cassio. Once his jealousy has been proved false, Othello turns his sword on himself. Jealousy has destroyed him. It also destroys Iago, whose torture is fitting punishment for his jealous crimes.

  
  

  
  

  THE IMAGERY OF JEALOUSY:

  The imagery associated with jealousy suggests it is an all-consuming, irrational emotion. It is 'the green-eyed monster, which doth mock/ The meat it feeds on' (III.3.168-9), 'a monster/ Begot upon itself, born on itself' (III.4.161-2). There is a strong sense of devouring and being devoured in these images, which fits in with Iago's description of Othello as being 'eaten up with passion' when he believes Desdemona is unfaithful (III.3.394). Shakespeare explores the monstrous power of jealousy again in The Winter's Tale, where King Leontes becomes convinced his wife, Hermione, has been unfaithful. Unlike Othello, whose mind is poisoned by a villain, Leontes's jealousy is fuelled by his own thoughts.

  
  

  
  

  JEALOUSY & MADNESS:

  Iago makes explicit connections between jealousy and madness. When Othello is overcome by jealous thoughts he falls down in a fit. Iago observes how 'he foams at mouth, and ... Breaks out to savage madness' (IV.1.54-5). Later Iago feeds Othello's jealousy as Othello watches Iago's conversation with Cassio. Othello believes he is watching Cassio describe his adulterous liaison with Desdemona. Iago comments, 'As he [Cassio] shall smile, Othello shall go mad' (IV.1.101). Emilia also makes a connection between madness and jealousy when she describes how husbands 'break out in peevish jealousies' (IV.3.88). If jealousy is associated with madness, to what extent is Othello responsible for the actions he commits when he is under its influence?

  
  

  For the best grades you must take into consideration different ways of looking at the text. For example, you might make a feminist interpretation of the play, exploring the presentation of gender roles. Or you could take a New Historicist approach and look at the way ethnicity is presented, taking into account Elizabethan ideas about race (see Contexts section).

  
  

  
  

  PROFESSIONAL JEALOUSY:

  Iago's professional jealousy, which can be linked to the sin of envy, sets the tragic events of the play in motion. Iago envies Cassio primarily because he is promoted to a post, Iago has coveted. Iago is also envious of Cassio's superior manners and social status. As late as Act V, Iago is still motivated by jealous thoughts about Cassio. Iago says Cassio must be destroyed because of the 'daily beauty in his life/ That makes me ugly' (V.1.19). Ask yourself whether there is an element of professional jealousy in Iago's treatment of Othello. Does the ensign wish to destroy Othello's military reputation, as well as his marriage?

  
  

  
  

  SEXUAL JEALOUSY:

  There are three examples of sexual jealousy in the play, all of them unfounded. Bianca, Iago and Othello all believe that they have been betrayed by those they love, and they are all wrong. Does sexual jealousy turn Iago into a villain? Iago's aim is to make Othello and Cassio suffer as he suffers because he fears he has been cuckolded. Unlike Othello, Iago is cool and calculating when he chooses to act on his suspicions, suggesting jealousy follows on naturally from hatred in his characterisation. This is not the case with Bianca and Othello. Their sexual jealousy is a response to feelings of genuine love when they believe their partners have been unfaithful. Perhaps Othello's insistence on proof might suggest that this jealous husband is a nobler man than Iago.

  
  

  Iago's sexual jealousy is prompted by rumours that 'the lusty Moor/ Hath leaped into my seat' (II.1.293-4). These words suggest sexual jealousy is prompted by competitiveness, as well as possessiveness. This is something we see again when Othello's overpowering jealousy takes hold. Othello cannot bear the idea of Desdemona's 'stolen hours of lust' (III.3.341). He feels he has been 'robbed'. In Othello sexual jealousy seems to be the 'flipside' of boundless love. What Othello shares with Iago is covetousness: both men feel jealous because they have lost possession of something that they held dear.

  
  

  Finally, Othello suggests jealousy is ridiculous and humiliating, as well as terrifying and corrosive. Iago's motives for revenge are inadequate, and the proofs he provides flimsy. It is horribly humiliating that Othello, a renowned and experienced soldier, should kill his wife and himself because of a handkerchief, which has absurdly come to symbolise his own and Desdemona's honour.

  
  

  
  

  JEALOUSY & OTHELLO'S MARRIAGE:

  The way in which jealousy contributes to the destruction of Othello's marriage. Write about:

  (1) Iago is driven by professional and sexual jealousy of Cassio and Othello. He seeks revenge on them when he is not promoted.

  (2) Iago's evil schemes suggest he is contemptuous of virtue and happiness and wants to annihilate them. He cannot bear to witness Othello's happy marriage.

  (3) Othello's jealousy is as powerful as his love and overwhelms him. However, he is torn between wanting to believe Desdemona is faithful and assuming she is false.

  (4) Othello's jealousy causes his mental agony. It makes him irrational. He turns to murder because he cannot be 'satisfied'.

  (5) Jealousy is the most powerful destructive force in this play. It leads to the death of virtue in both protagonist and antagonist. With the deaths of the central couple, love is destroyed.

  
  

  
  

  KEY QUOTATION: JELOUSY:

  Emilia's definition of jealousy suggests how irrational and corrosive it is: 'jealous souls will not be answered ... They are not jealous for the cause,/ But jealous for they're jealous' (III.4.159-61).

  
  

  Emilia's words can be applied to both Iago and Othello - neither has a just 'cause' for his actions.

  Iago's jealousy 'will not be answered': Iago's professional grudge against Cassio and Othello turns into a multiple murder plot.

  Othello's jealousy 'will not be answered': he refuses to believe Desdemona's protestations of her innocence.
• THEMES (AO1/2)

  Love and relationship

  DOUBLE STANDARDS:

  At the heart of Othello is the idea of double standards, a concept which still exists today. Codes of conduct for men and women are very different in this play, as they were in Shakespeare's society. Men have more personal freedom, and women are judged by them and in relation to them. Bianca's vulnerable status as 'strumpet' (IV.1.97) reminds us of the double standard. It is socially acceptable for Cassio to consort with a courtesan, but it is presumptuous for Bianca to expect him to marry her. Iago pretends to help Roderigo in his adulterous pursuit of Desdemona because it enables him to keep hold of his 'purse' (I.3.381). Men toy with and discard women as they choose. Iago's successful vilification of Desdemona is the key example of this. Iago uses the double standard to his advantage when he blackens Desdemona's name. The masculine code of honour is threatened by the idea of active female sexuality, so Iago destroys Othello by making the hero believe his chaste wife has strayed. There are two types of women in Othello's world: chaste wives or ****s. If Desdemona is not one, then she must be the other. If she is a****, she has to be punished.

  
  

  
  

  GENDER & POWER:

  It's important that you can discuss how power is a key factor in all the relationships portrayed. To begin with, we are presented with a picture of powerful womanhood: Desdemona has deceived her father and asserted her independence from patriarchy by choosing her own husband. The example set by Desdemona shows that male-female relationships are the focus of conflict in this play; they are about opposition and power. Throughout the play we see further power struggles between couples and friends: Iago competes with Desdemona for Othello's ear; Desdemona and Emilia defend themselves against their husbands' suspicions; Bianca tries to assert her rights as Cassio's mistress. The women lose these power struggles. By the end of the play, all the female characters are silenced, their fragile power negated. That they ever had any power is debatable. They are only ever seen in relation to the male characters, who have the power to describe, define and kill them.

  
  

  
  

  COUPLES:

  Initially, Desdemona and Othello stand apart from the other couples because they have a harmonious relationship. There is no disillusionment or dissatisfaction here. The relationships of Bianca and Cassio and Emilia and Iago are not happy. The former is an unequal match between a 'customer' (IV.1.120) who feels a limited affection and a 'bauble' (IV.1.134), whose genuine love makes her unhappy. Cassio reveals the limitations of this relationship - which he clearly feels is unworthy in some way - when he tells Bianca to be gone because he would not be seen in her company. Emilia and Iago are a chilling match. Marriage has made Emilia cynical about male-female relationships. She knows she is merely 'food' (III.4.105) for Iago, acceptable until she disobeys him and refuses to be silent, at which point her husband tries to kill her.

  
  

  The misogyny of Iago casts a dark shadow over Othello's relationship with Desdemona, which seems so full of optimism and delight at the start of the play. Despite their different social, cultural and racial backgrounds the hero and heroine symbolise a meeting of two minds in Acts I and II. Othello loves Desdemona for her feminine grace and sympathy; she loves him for his masculine heroism. Essentially, Othello and Desdemona love each other harmoniously because of the differences they perceive in each other. These differences become distorted by an interloper, a man who cannot bear to see two lovers 'well tuned' (II.1.198). The envious, unhappily married Iago destroys true love.

  
  

  
  

  A LOVE TRIANGLE?

  In some ways, it is possible to see the Othello-Desdemona-Iago relationship as a warped kind of love triangle. Iago seeks to displace Desdemona. What is it that he objects to so strongly when he looks at Othello and Desdemona together? Why does Iago wish to get between them? The text suggests that there is something very complicated going on. Iago's responses to the feminine reveal a mixture of fear and loathing. Part of his contempt for Othello male-female in his fear that Desdemona has power. Iago has been sidelined. We know from his mocking reference to Desdemona as Othello's 'general' (II.3.310) that he cannot bear the fact that a female exerts influence. Iago despises Othello for giving in to love, which he sees as a feminine, unworthy emotion. Iago's derision of love and the female is also illustrated when he sneers about Desdemona being able to 'play the god' with Othello (II.3.342). Iago loathes the idea of a man being in thrall to a woman, believing Othello is weakened and trapped by love. Othello's soul is 'enfettered' to Desdemona's love, so much so that 'she may make, unmake, do what she list ... With his weak function' (II.3.340-3).

  
  

  Iago responds to this by denigrating Desdemona and by making her voice seem unreliable. The power struggle comes into sharp focus when we consider the vow Iago makes to Othello at the end of Act III Scene 3: 'I am your own for ever' (line 482). Iago's fake love destroys Othello's real love. Othello begins to assert his masculine power in an overbearing way because he believes that Desdemona has begun to assert herself sexually. To any Renaissance husband, this would be unacceptable. We might see the events of Acts IV and V as an attempt by Othello to reassert his own power over Desdemona. Because of this, we come to associate masculine love with violence. Iago's misogyny triumphs.

  
  

  If you are asked to write about the ways in which love and marriage are presented in Othello you need to link these themes to the cultural and historical context of the play in order to get the best grades. For example, you could consider the status of women in a patriarchal society when commenting on the ways in which Desdemona, Emilia and Bianca are treated by the male characters.

  
  

  
  

  EMILIA ON MARRIAGE:

  Emilia has a disillusioned view of marriage: ''Tis, not a year or two shows us a man./ They are all but stomachs, and we all but food' (III.4.104-5).

  
  

  These words remind us that the female characters are powerless in Othello; they are 'food' for their men.

  Emilia's cynical comments undermine the romance of the marriage of Othello and Desdemona.

  Emilia reminds us of the importance of not judging by first impressions and appearances.

  
  

  
  

  WOMEN AS VICTIMS:

  Make brief notes about the extent to which you believe the women in the play are portrayed as powerless victims.

  (1) Desdemona exerts power in her courtship; she chooses Othello and demands the right to live with him. When Othello mistrusts her, her power diminishes and Desdemona is unable to control her own destiny.

  (2) Emilia has little power in her relationship with Iago until the final scene when she speaks out against him. Until this point, she has unwittingly been his co-conspirator.

  (3) Bianca has no power to command Cassio.

  (4) The women are all vilified by Iago, whose words and actions render them powerless.

  (5) Under Iago's influence, Othello becomes a verbal and physical abuser of women. He is the agent of his wife's destruction. Act V shows that all the women are the victims of male aggression.
• THEMES (AO1/2)

  Race and colour

  OTHELLO'S RACE:

  It is not possible to define Othello's race exactly. There have been suggestions that he is a Negro, Arabian, Berber or that his Spanish name makes Othello a 'Morisco', a descendant of the Moors of Granada, whose famous palace at Alhambra in the fourteenth century. It can be argued that Othello's race is irrelevant. If this is the case, why did Shakespeare break with dramatic tradition and present a Moorish hero? Before Othello black characters in Renaissance drama were usually villains. The wealth of imagery of black and white and light and dark suggests that colour is significant in this play (see Language section). At the time Othello was written there were various stereotypes of the black man, most of them negative. From the medieval period onwards the devil was often depicted in art as a black man surrounded by the flames of hell. Other traditions associated the black man with lust, sin and death. Prior to Othello, 'blackamoors' in plays and pageants were usually sinister figures.

  
  

  
  

  CONTRASTING VIEWS OF OTHELLO'S BLACKNESS:

  We are presented with at least two opposing views of Othello's blackness. Early in the play positive descriptions come from the Moor himself, who seems proud of his heritage, the Duke of Venice and Desdemona. The fact that Othello has risen to the important and powerful position of general and is accepted as a distinguished member of Venetian society suggests that the state he serves is at least 'colour blind', prepared to see good in foreigners and accept that they have a useful role to play.

  
  

  There are opposing views about Othello, and his race is at the heart of the way he is perceived. Early in the play positive descriptions of Othello's blackness come from the Moor himself, the Duke of Venice and Desdemona. The fact that Othello has risen to the important and powerful position of general and is accepted as a distinguished member of Venetian society suggests that the state he serves is prepared to see good in foreigners and accept that they have a useful role to play.

  
  

  However, it is noticeable that even Desdemona, who never regrets marrying Othello, is forced to explain her choice. She defends her marriage by saying she 'saw Othello's visage in his mind' (I.3.253). This suggests either that Desdemona looked past his colour or that Othello's stories and origins excited her. Is Shakespeare suggesting that Othello is the exception to the rule that black is usually bad, or urging us to see that racial differences do not matter in love? If this is the case, Desdemona holds a radical point of view for a Jacobean heroine. She is probably the only character in the play who does not view mixed marriages with anxiety. Do the Duke's words to Brabantio suggest caution or racial tolerance? Consider the line, 'Your son-in-law is far more fair than black' (I.3.291). Is this an attempt to excuse Othello's blackness? Does it mean 'Try to accept your daughter's marriage because Othello is virtuous, even though he is black'? Or is this an example of another 'colour blind' white character dismissing race as an irrelevance?

  
  

  To get the best grades it is important to consider a range of contextual factors when writing about the play. One of the key contexts you should consider in relation to Othello is the way in which the tragic protagonist conforms to and challenges Renaissance stereotypes about race.

  
  

  
  

  OTHELLO THE OUTSIDER:

  New Historicist critics have argued that Othello's tragedy comes about because he can never be anything except an outsider. Othello is in an impossible position as a black man serving white patriarchy. Is Othello foolish to expect his adopted society to accept his marriage to a white woman? There are other ideas of dislocation to consider. We might feel that the hero is dislocated because he marries, turning his back on his profession to become a husband. Othello becomes further dislocated when he views his own race negatively, giving in to Iago's prejudice. Consideration of Othello's dislocation must include an assessment of his final speeches, which suggest he is not his noble self because he has become a villain. Gratiano and Montano never mention Othello's race when they take him prisoner; they simply want to punish the 'rash and most unfortunate man' for his crimes (V.2.280). References to the devil are reserved for Iago at the end of the play, linking him firmly to the theme of dislocation. In the final scene, race is not the cause of Othello's dislocation: his murderous actions are.

  
  

  
  

  RACE & COLOUR:

  Strictly speaking, race cannot be considered a theme in the same way that jealousy and love are themes in Othello; however, it is impossible to arrive at a satisfactory interpretation of the play, its characters and events without considering the way race and colour are presented. As we have seen above, the wealth of imagery of black and white, light and dark suggests that colour is important in this play (see Imagery ). It is not possible to define Othello's race and colour exactly; critics have argued about Shakespeare's intentions for his hero; that he is a Negro, that he is Arabian, that he is some other race. A number of critics have also argued that the hero's race is irrelevant; but if this is the case, why did Shakespeare bother to break with dramatic tradition and present a Moorish hero at all? Before Othello, black characters in Elizabethan drama were usually villains; the presentation of a noble Moor must mean something. Some commentators suggest that Shakespeare presents a black hero to introduce the idea of the difference. Others argue Othello's racial origins make him an outsider. Certainly, we might consider the use of a black hero in relation to two key ideas that are explored in the play; dislocation and opposition.

  
  

  But it is noticeable that even Desdemona, who never regrets her marriage and refuses to accept that her love for valiant Othello can ever be tainted, has to explain her choice; she defends her marriage by saying she 'saw Othello's visage in his mind' (I.3.253); in other words, she looks past his colour. Is Shakespeare suggesting that Othello is the exception to the rule that black is usually bad, or urging us to see that racial differences do not matter in affairs of the heart? If this is the case, Desdemona holds a radical point of view; she is probably the only character in the play who does not view miscegenation with anxiety. Do the Duke's words to Brabantio suggest caution? Consider the line, 'your son in law is far fairer than black' (I.3.291). Is this an attempt by the Duke to excuse Othello's blackness? Does this line mean 'try to accept your daughter's marriage because the man she has married is virtuous, even though he is black'? Or is this an example of another white character pleading for racial tolerance?

  
  

  There is another very negative view of Othello's blackness, which is undermined because we do not respect the speakers, or at least question their judgement. To Iago, Roderigo and Brabantio Othello's colour and racial background - particularly in relation to his marrying a white female - are alarming. Their references to a 'sooty bosom' (I.2.70), 'the thicklips' (I.1.65), and 'an old black ram' (I.1.87) who practises witchcraft in order to subdue a terrified maiden construct a negative stereotype of the hero. These descriptions are inaccurate. The Othello they describe does not exist, although it is possible to argue that the hero begins to display some of the negative aspects of the stereotype when he is persecuted by Iago; he is superstitious (the handkerchief), he is passionate and he does become violent. However, many would argue that he shares these characteristics with the white devil who torments him. Ultimately, regardless of the prejudice these characters - and Emilia - show, we will probably respond to Othello's blackness positively, even when the hero himself doubts his attractions. He is more noble and impressive than any of the other male characters in the play and his history is fascinating. We can see why Desdemona chose Othello and appreciate the uniqueness of her choice; is important to remember that the heroine made a very active and positive choice. Othello stresses this when he says 'she had eyes and chose me' (III.3.192); there is no question that the black hero had to force himself on the white heroine and it is also, of course, Desdemona who insists - publicly - on being allowed to enjoy her marital rights, not her husband. If Othello's colour becomes slightly problematic in the second half of the play it is because Iago's racism is insidious; he destroys the black-white harmony that existed and makes the hero behave in a way that we feel is unnatural for him (Othello finds it almost impossible to reject and destroy Desdemona; for Iago violence comes easily).

  
  

  So far as dislocation is concerned, critics have argued that the hero's tragedy comes about because he can never be anything except an outsider; he is in an untenable position as a black man serving white patriarchy. These critics would argue that it is absurd of Othello to expect to carve out a place for himself in his adopted society because its members will never truly accept him. There are other ideas of dislocation to consider too. We might feel that the black hero is dislocated because he marries a white woman, turning his back on his profession to become a lover-husband. Othello becomes further dislocated when he views his own race negatively, giving in to Iago's racism.
• GENRE, STRUCTURE & LANGUAGE (AO2)

  Genre - Tragedy

  THE ORIGINS OF TRAGEDY:

  Greek tragedy is based on conflict and depicts the downfall of high-ranking characters who make fatal errors of judgement (hamartia) because of their overweening ambition and pride (hubris). They are destroyed swiftly by the disastrous consequences of their errors. There is a strong element of fate-determining the outcome in Greek tragedy, which the tragic hero dies fighting against. At the end of Greek tragedies justice and order are restored and a new status quo is established. Catharsis - a purging of the emotions - has taken place. Aristotle suggested that tragedy should evoke pity and fear (pathos) in an audience.

  
  

  In classical tragedy, the hero's tragic end is inevitable. Make sure that you can comment on this aspect of the genre in relation to Othello.

  
  

  
  

  GREEK TRAGEDY IN OTHELLO:

  Othello fits into the classical mould in a number of ways. Othello is a high-ranking general and is descended from a line of kings. Many believe that he suffers from hubris. What do you think? Is Othello overambitious when he marries Desdemona? Does he overreach himself when he tries to combine the roles of soldier and husband? Is the hero too proud and self-satisfied? It is possible to argue that there is a sense of inevitability about Othello's downfall from the moment he arrives in Cyprus and declares he feels 'too much joy' (II.1.195). Undoubtedly, the tragic denouement in Act V evokes feelings of fear and pity. Emilia performs some of the functions of a Greek chorus when she comments on Othello's folly.

  
  

  To get the best grades you must use terminology accurately when commenting on the language, form and structure of the play. When you are writing about Othello as a tragedy, you may find it useful to include some of the Greek terms associated with the genre, e.g. hubris, hamartia, pathos. Be sure that you understand what they mean.

  
  

  
  

  CONFLICT & SUFFERING IN TRAGEDY:

  Conflict lies at the heart of all Shakespeare's tragedies. Driven by negative impulses and emotions - envy, hatred, lust and personal ambition - characters in tragedies find themselves embroiled in disputes with each other. Often these disputes lead to disorder and division. They also cause great suffering to the tragic protagonist and those around him. In King Lear, Shakespeare explores what happens when Lear selfishly divides his kingdom, and the terrible consequences of his disputes with his daughters. In this play the whole nation is affected by the king's foolish actions. In Othello, Shakespeare presents a different type of conflict. The focus is narrower. The conflict we witness is in Othello's mind. Othello becomes divided against himself, conflicted about whether he loves or hates Desdemona. His conflict causes him great suffering and anguish, which intensifies as the play moves towards the tragic outcome. Shakespeare does not suggest that Othello deserves to suffer, but the audience knows that the consequences of the hero's conflict will be terrible. In tragedy, conflict and suffering end in violent death. When Othello's internal conflict drives him to murder, we know that the resolution of the play must include the tragic protagonist's own demise.

  
  

  However, Othello is a highly original tragedy. Shakespeare presents the first black hero in English drama, departing from theatrical convention. Shakespeare also subverts tragic conventions by keeping the evil revenger Iago alive at the end of the play. In most Jacobean tragedies the villain dies as part of the process of catharsis so that order can . Iago's dominance in this tragedy is also unusual; the villain and hero have equivalent stage time and are equally powerful speakers.

  
  

  
  

  SHAKESPEARIAN TRAGEDY & OTHELLO:

  In his tragedies Shakespeare explores the nature of good and evil, the disintegration of families and the breakdown of law and order within states or countries. In Othello, Shakespeare pits good (Othello) against evil (Iago) and we watch as the tragic hero's new family unit is destroyed against the backdrop of the Turkish conflict. As well as observing some of the conventions of Greek tragedy, Shakespeare makes effective use of the theatrical conventions of his own age. By the time he came to write Othello, it was usual to present tragedies in five acts, with a climax or turning point in Act III and a tragic outcome in Act V.

  
  

  
  

  LOVE & PITY IN OTHELLO:

  Othello is a tragedy preoccupied by the nature of love. In Act I we are presented with a couple whose deep mutual love makes them appealing to the audience. We side with Othello and Desdemona in the Senate scene in Act I Scene 3 because their love is threatened. As the play progresses our admiration for the couple is turned to pity, as we watch Iago destroy their relationship. From Act III love is undermined by mistrust, uncertainty and jealousy. However, in spite of the violent deaths in Act V, it is possible to argue that love reasserts itself at the end of Othello. Desdemona defends her love for Othello with her dying breath, and the tragic protagonist dies 'upon a kiss' (V.2.357).

  
  

  
  

  THE POWER OF THE VILLAIN IN OTHELLO:

  In 'Othello', the tragic hero becomes a victim because of the evil schemes of the villain, Iago. The suffering of the central couple is a direct result of his malicious plotting. The audience will recognise that Othello has faults, but that he is a nobleman brought low by a very powerful adversary. The play is extremely painful to watch because we know how untrustworthy the villain is from the very first scene, and can see how expert Iago is at exercising his power.

  
  

  A key theme in tragedy is isolation. Think about how the villain Iago works to isolate the characters from each other in Othello and why he does this. You might also consider to what extent Iago's success lies in his own isolation. Or does Iago need others for his plans to succeed?

  
  

  
  

  THE INFLUENCE OF COMEDY:

  Shakespeare makes use of a number of theatrical conventions that his audience would have recognised as belonging to comedy. These borrowings reveal Shakespeare's ability to work innovatively with the tragic form. The central focus in the play - the jealous husband who fears he has been cuckolded - is more often associated with comedy than tragedy. Iago is a descendant of the cunning slaves of Roman comedy, who delight in outwitting their masters. The foolish father Baptista and his wily daughter Bianca, who chooses her own husband in Shakespeare's early comedy The Taming of the Shrew, are ancestors of Brabantio and Desdemona. Both - deceived father and deceptive daughter - are stock characters from comedy.
• GENRE, STRUCTURE & LANGUAGE (AO2)

  Process of Change - Structure


  PROCESS OF CHANGE IN 'OTHELLO':

  The tragic significance of the entire play revolves around the fact that the greatness and goodness of any man, his achievements in his profession and his success can be swiftly and utterly undone; that he could sink not only from bliss to despair but from the heights of human excellence to the very baseness of our animal instincts. We are first introduced to Othello from the thoughts of Iago and Roderigo. These comments in the opening scene are mostly of a racist nature and Othello is described as a barbaric and as a Negro - he is referred to as "the thick lips" in the opening act.

  
  

  He is also full of "his own pride and purposes" (Iago, Act 1, Scene 1). Racist inuendoes are continued when Brabantio is awakened. Iago cruelly says: "an old black ram is tapping your white ewe" (Act 1, Scene 1) and tells Brabantio that his nephews will "neigh to you" (Act 1, Scene 1). The contrast then surprises the reader in Scene 2 of the same act where Othello is seen to act very noble. He will not run and hide but will defend himself.

  
  

  The Moor is revealed as an honest and distinguished member of Venetian society, who not even the noble Brabantio can go against. With his clam and superior poetic speech, he is depicted as a well respected military commander. Othello accepts the challenge to defend himself and with his declaration, Othello manages to prove himself. The duke, in fact, says: "your son-in-law is more fair than black" (Act 1, Scene 1). In his declaration, Othello hints that this charm and poetic speech is what also drew Desdemona to him, "she loved me for the dangers I had passed" (Act 1, Scene 3).

  
  

  We tend to warm up to the character of Othello, especially when we see the evil in Iago's plans and, therefore, tend to disregard the racist comments of the first scene. Iago turns crueller and crueller and uses the good characteristics of Othello to manipulate him to his advantage. Without someone of profound evil and cunning, the task of making Othello's change believable would be impossible.
• GENRE, STRUCTURE & LANGUAGE (AO2)

  Dramatic Structure

  USE OF SETTING:

  There is a narrow focus in Othello. There are two principal locations, Venice and Cyprus, but gradually our attention becomes fixed on a single bedroom, creating a feeling of claustrophobia that is unique in Shakespeare's tragedies. The outer world becomes insignificant as the hero becomes monomaniacal, obsessed with a single concern. The use of Venice as a location is significant. At the end of the sixteenth century, dramatists began to use Italy as a suitable location for revenge tragedies; the Italians were thought to be worldly and Venice, in particular, was associated with everything that was culturally sophisticated; it was a location that suggested power, order and wealth to the audience. At the beginning of the play, Othello appears to have succeeded in Venice on its terms; he has gained both power and wealth. But he is also an outsider: different. The play explores what happens to the hero when he is made to feel this difference. It is appropriate that the Machiavellian trickster Iago should originate and appear in an Italian setting before being transported to Cyprus. Shakespeare's use of a war with the Turks and the uneasy atmosphere of the garrison town in Cyprus - a 'halfway house' between civilisation and the heathen world - is also dramatically significant. The war isolates the heroine from everything and everyone she knows; similarly, Othello feels his difference and isolation in Cyprus when he is 'Perplexed in the extreme' (V.2.344). Here, in this unfamiliar setting, with the threat of danger lurking, passions are unleashed and order is destroyed. The storm helps to establish and reflect the fear and violence that the characters will feel in Cyprus, while also being a symbol of Othello and Desdemona's love.

  
  

  
  

  A SENSE OF CLAUSTROPHOBIA:

  The sense of claustrophobia is heightened by the fact that there is no subplot in Othello. The action of the play focuses very closely on Iago's role and Othello's reactions to his 'reports' (V.2.183). Even the characters who seem to have other 'lives' are closely linked to the married couple in some way; Roderigo's foolish hopes and Cassio's relationship with Bianca provide us with points of comparison with the Othello-Desdemona match. Our sense of claustrophobia is also heightened because we are aware that we are observing a group of characters who exist in a tightly knit social network, where each person has a clearly defined position and the role and a view of each other member of the group. Iago threatens the order and harmony of the network because he is able to manipulate the views of the most powerful group member. The single plot intensifies dramatic tension: we are never given a moment's respite to look away from Iago's progress as he pushes Othello towards tragedy.

  
  

  
  

  REVERSAL & REPETITION:

  The structure of the play relies on reversal and repetition. In the first three acts Iago comes to dominate; in Act I, he is clearly the underdog, overlooked and perhaps irrelevant except as an escort for the general's wife. In the second act, he forms his plans and sets up his revenge so that in Act III he disassemble 'triumph' over Othello. Conversely, Othello is at his most secure in Acts I and II, when he defends and then consummates his marriage. In Act III he struggles to resist the jealousy that threatens to overpower his reason, succumbing to it in Act IV. In Act V Othello sinks further still when he smothers his wife - he becomes what Iago is: an act of destructive revenge. At the end of the play, the tragic protagonist is partially redeemed when he recognises the truth and chooses to destroy himself, while Iago's downfall is assured when he is revealed as a scoundrel.

  
  

  
  

  REPETITIONS (Continued)

  There are other repetitions in the play that are important. Othello finds himself on trial in Act I and is then placed in a position where he must judge his lieutenant and his wife in subsequent acts. Roderigo is gulled in each conversation he has with Iago, on each occasion getting closer to danger, until he finds himself participating in a plot against Cassio, which proves fatal to him. Desdemona's repeated attempts at pleading for Cassio are increasingly dangerous to the heroine; as he smothers her Othello believes she is weeping for the lieutenant. Repeated words and phrases are important too. Brabantio's bitter words about Desdemona's deception in Act I Scene 3 come back to haunt Othello in Act III Scene 3 (see line 209), while the repetition of 'honest' in relation to Iago is a source of heavy and alarming irony. All the main characters (with the exception of his wife, interestingly) call Iago 'honest' and the ensign makes extensive use of the word himself when gulling his victims; it is as if Shakespeare is showing the ensign's insidious power to 'enmesh 'em all' (II.3.357) through his ability to get his victims to think of and describe him in the same way.

  
  

  
  

  HANDKERCHIEF & IT'S SYMBOLISM:

  Finally, we should also consider the prop that ignites the tragedy: the handkerchief. This trifle becomes loaded with dramatic significance; the whole plot revolves around this object and like the word 'honest', it passes from one character to another. It becomes a symbol of Desdemona's chastity and worthiness as a wife, which are abused, as the handkerchief itself is 'abused' when Emilia passes it on to her husband. But it is also a symbol of deception and lack of knowledge; Desdemona is puzzled as to how she lost it, Othello believes she gave it away, Emilia does not know why her husband covets it, Cassio does not know how it came to be in his chamber, Bianca falsely assumes he received it from another sweetheart. Only Iago knows the whole truth about the handkerchief, which is appropriate given the dramatic structure of the play; for four acts he is the only character who fully understands what is happening because he has set events in motion. Finally, the construction of scenes is also extremely effective in Othello. Long scenes of painful exchanges or confrontation are punctuated by short scenes or moments of violence - verbal and physical.
• GENRE, STRUCTURE & LANGUAGE (AO2)

  Recognition & Reversal

  (Peripeteia & Anagorisis)

  IN TRAGEDY:

  Aristotle states that dramatic tragedy involves a variety of elements. Chief among these elements are peripeteia, translated as "reversal," and anagnorisis translated as "recognition." These, of course, refer to the dramatic moments in works of tragedy.

  
  

  Peripeteia:

  Aristotle defines peripeteia as "a change of a situation into its opposite, and this too must accord with the probable or the inevitable." This reversal of fortune is done for the dramatic effect of taking some lofty character of high status or moral worth and bringing them down into emotional despair or ethical dearth. In Aristotle's words, this is an essential quality to tragedy: the fall from grace of a "good individual" brought about by that very same character.
• GENRE, STRUCTURE & LANGUAGE (AO2)

  Language

  LANGUAGE IS ACTION - POWER OF WORDS:

  Elizabethan and Jacobean dramatists used language to establish and build dramatic atmosphere, to define time, place and character. But in Othello, language is not simply the medium by which the drama is conveyed: in this play language is action. Othello 'falls' because he believes a man whose every utterance is deceptive. When the hero is taken in by false words, tragedy is the result. This play shows us the power of words; we watch as characters construct their own and others' identities through language, and exert power either by speaking, remaining silent or silencing others.

  
  

  STYLE:

  Othello is written in blank verse and prose. Blank verse consists of unrhymed iambic pentameters, with five stressed syllables and five unstressed syllables to each line. Shakespeare uses this traditional form flexibly, however, varying the pace of his writing to achieve specific effects. He also creates specific idioms for each of his characters. If we look at the language of Othello and Iago we can see how the dramatist creates not only a character but also the theme of opposition which is central to the play. From his opening speeches in Act I Scenes 2 and 3 it is clear that Othello's characteristic idiom is dignified, measured blank verse. This is appropriate, given his status in the play. His use of blank verse also helps establish his heroism.

  
  

  OTHELLO'S AUTHORITY THROUGH LANGUAGE:

  Othello speaks clearly and purposefully. His authority also comes across in these lines, and there is a sense of both danger and beauty - entirely appropriate to the speaker - in his references to 'bright swords' and 'dew'. We are immediately aware that the hero is an impressive character and a powerful speaker. This power is reinforced in the next scene when Othello uses words not just to defend his elopement with Desdemona, but also to enable him to keep her; if he does not speak convincingly the 'bloody book of law' (I.3.68) may deprive him of his wife. Desdemona acknowledges her husband's rhetorical power when she enters. We already know that she was seduced by his storytelling; now we discover that she uses the same dignified and purposeful idiom that he employs. Through their shared speech patterns Shakespeare conveys the harmony and mutual affection of Othello and Desdemona's match; the lovers are as Iago expresses it 'well tun'd' (II.1.198) at this point. Each of Othello's long speeches in this scene could be compared to a poem; expressing the nobility and romance we come to associate with the tragic protagonist. Many critics see Othello as Shakespeare's most 'poetic' hero, a fitting judgement given the fact that we focus on the protagonist's experiences of love in this play. But Othello does not just speak of his love poetically; he also speaks of his glorious career as a soldier in the same vein, thus establishing himself as a great military man. The orderliness of his verse suggests not just his confidence, but also the fact that we and the Senate are wise to trust in his composure and reason. Linked to this, Othello's reference to and pride in his 'estimation' (I.3.275), also help to convey a sense of the hero's worth; while also suggesting that the way in which you are perceived by others - your reputation - is going to be an important theme in this play.

  
  

  TRAGEDY PORTRAYED THROUGH LANGUAGE:

  When Othello begins to see himself and his wife through Iago's eyes and is corrupted by Iago's idiom, his stately style begins to break down. At his lowest point, just before he falls to the ground in an epileptic fit, Othello's words convey his agitation:

  Lie with her, lie on her? We say lie on her,

  when they belie her! Lie with her, zounds!, that's

  fulsome! - Handkerchief! confessions! handkerchief! - To confess, and be hanged for his labour! First, to be hanged, and then to confess: I tremble at it. Nature would not invest herself in such shadowing passion without some instruction. It is not words that shakes me thus. Pish! Noses, ears and lips. Is't possible? Confess? handkerchief! O devil! (IV.1)

  There are a number of points to be made about this breakdown. Firstly, Othello's fractured sense of self is conveyed through the lexis and syntax. Previously the hero spoke of himself in the first and third person (their usage conveyed his nobility and status as a hero); now his use of pronouns 'we', 'they', 'his', 'I', 'me' suggests insecurity. His use of questions suggests this too. Othello's identity is threatened because he no longer feels he 'knows' his wife; he cannot trust her looks and words. There is a terrible irony in the fact that Othello declares 'It is not words that shake me thus'; the events of the play and the violence of his outburst here suggest that words are the cause of Othello's destruction. Note the use of disjointed prose rather than measured verse: reason has given way to passion. Othello has also begun to use oaths ('zounds!') which are associated with Iago, suggesting not only the ensign's power as a speaker but also his ability to influence and control the powers of speech of others. Right at the end of this speech we struggle to make any sense of Othello's words ('Pish! Noses, ears and lips. Is't possible? / Confess? handkerchief? O devil!'). These lines suggest the hero's degradation and degeneration.

  
  

  LANGUAGE TO REPRESENT OTHELLO & DESDEMONA'S BREAK-UP:

  From this point on Othello and Desdemona struggle to understand one another's use of language. The break-up of their marital harmony is conveyed through the disruption in the lines and Othello's measured calm gives way to verbal bullying (see III.4.80-98). This pattern mirrors the disrupted lines of Act III Scene 3 when Iago first started to poison Othello's mind. Desdemona later says, 'I understand a fury in your words / But not the words' (IV.2.32-3). By this point he misconstrues everything she says:

  DESDEMONA: Alas, what ignorant sin have I committed?

  OTHELLO: Was this fair paper, this most goodly book

  Made to write '*****' upon? ... What, committed!

  Committed! O thou public commoner!

  (IV.2.71-4)

  Eventually, unable to comprehend his wife's honesty, failing to see that her words should be taken at face value, Othello smothers and silences Desdemona. When confronted with the truth he then recovers, returning to the majestic idiom of his earlier speeches at the end of Act V. His final speech echoes his first speech to the Senate, but Othello no longer speaks of himself as a worthy hero only. Now he compares himself to 'the base Indian' and 'the circumcised dog' (V.2.345 and 353), his words and syntax recall former glories, but also point towards the 'bloody period' of the hero's death (V.2.354).

  
  

  IAGO'S POWER CONVEYED THROUGH LANGUAGE:

  Language is the source of Iago's power too, but his characteristic idiom is very different. It is full of compounds, colloquialisms and oaths, befitting a bluff soldier. But Iago's use of language is more complicated than this. We quickly notice that the villain slips between prose and verse, adapting his style to suit his different audiences and purposes. The blunt, persuasive and lucid prose of his exchanges with Roderigo conveys Iago's base nature, but the ensign also makes use of a loftier style too, as in his parody of Othello's idiom in Act III Scene 3 (lines 465-72). This speech is an example of Iago's power: he can manipulate his style effortlessly. Most worryingly for the audience, Othello begins to use the villain's base idiom when he decides to revenge himself on Desdemona, showing his lack of judgement and Iago's increasing authority over him. When he adopts Iago's style and begins to eavesdrop (Iago might be seen as an eavesdropper when he speaks in asides) Othello shows that he has become 'well tun'd' with the wrong character. Iago's heavy use of asides also reveals his cunning, destructive power; he is able to not only direct but also to comment on the action of the play. His use of soliloquies reinforces his power. Elizabethan and Jacobean dramatists used this artificial theatrical convention to evoke the inwardness of their characters, to show what they think and feel. Soliloquies are also used to convey information and for particular dramatic effect. In Othello the evil ensign speaks his soliloquies first (Othello's soliloquies occur towards the end of the play), drawing the audience in as he outlines his intentions and ideas. Because we know exactly what his plans are, we might feel that Shakespeare forces us to collude with the villain in some way: Iago is so clever, such an impressive actor. Iago's soliloquies and asides are also a source of a great deal of the dramatic irony of Othello, which increases dramatic tension for the audience. Finally, Iago is also able to manipulate his silences, as in Act III Scene 3 when he deliberately introduces 'stops' (III.3.123) to infuriate and intrigue Othello. By faking a reluctance to talk he gains the opportunity to speak at length. At the end of the play, Iago's defiant and deliberate silence can seem suggestive of continued power (the villain refuses to reveal his motives and admit remorse) or power thwarted; he no longer has the ability to sway others with his words and has perhaps been silenced, like his victim Desdemona. It is both ironic and appropriate that Iago is unmasked by his wife, whose silence he has taken for granted and whose powers of a speech he has not taken into account.

  
  

  EACH CHARACTER'S OWN STYLE:

  This discussion of the hero's and villain's contrasting idioms might be extended; each of the characters in Othello has his or her own style. For example, Cassio's speech is gallant and courtly, Emilia's salty and down-to-earth. The different 'voices' and styles in Othello are an important part of the play's power to hold and move the audience. Another very important part of the linguistic power of the play is Shakespeare's use of figurative language, the imagery (which is discussed in Critical Approaches: Imagery and Critical Approaches: Themes.)
• GENRE, STRUCTURE & LANGUAGE (AO2)

  Irony

  IRONY & DRAMATIC IRONY:

  There are various types of irony in Othello, which relies heavily on dramatic irony for its effects. There are also examples of situational and verbal irony which help us to understand the action. Iago is the primary source of dramatic irony; he informs us of his intentions, but his victims do not know that they are being manipulated. This puts us in the uncomfortable position of knowing more than the characters, increasing the tension: will Iago succeed in his diabolical designs or will he be discovered? It can be argued that the irony that surrounds Iago and his role forces us to reject the villain. We may marvel at his ingenuity and skill but we cannot approve of him. We become increasingly worried by the verbal irony of repeated references to him as 'honest', just as we are repulsed by the grim and self-conscious irony of some of his utterances. There is considerable irony in the use of the word 'love' in this play too. Note how frequently it is on Iago's lips when he is gulling his victims; this is rather horrible when we consider that Othello and Desdemona's true love is being destroyed by the false and empty love Iago professes. We might also feel that in some ways the joke is on Iago. He thinks that he is a cunning villain, who can arrogantly conceal his true self and remain detached and aloof while all around him 'lose their cool', but is he not driven by passion? His downfall is ironic; Emilia destroys his reputation as an honest man; this is rather appropriate given the fact that the success of Iago's revenge against Othello was reliant on the successful destruction of Desdemona's reputation.

  
  

  EXAMPLES OF IRONY:

  There are other examples of irony that deserve consideration. Othello and Desdemona's situations are ironic. The former falls at the very moment that he feels he has reached the apogee of his success by marrying the 'divine Desdemona' (II.1.73); when his conception of himself is most secure, he is undermined. He finds that his heroic past counts for nothing: he is forced into the role of 'circumcised dog' (V.2.353) by the 'inhuman dog' (V.1.62) Iago. And having been resolutely sure of Desdemona the hero finds himself wondering why he has married, convinced that he has united himself with 'the cunning ***** of Venice' (IV.2.91). For her own part, Desdemona expects to consummate her marriage in Cyprus, but her marriage bed is transformed into her deathbed. Othello's conviction that his wife has weak morals is also heartbreakingly ironic; when he doubts Desdemona, the hero reveals his own weakness. Ironically, other characters reveal their weaknesses when they feel they are on the brink of or have achieved success. Iago is brought down just as he has achieved his aims; Cassio gains promotion only to be disgraced for drunken brawling; Roderigo hopes to kill Cassio and supplant him in Desdemona's affections, but is instead murdered by the man who urged him onto the vile deed, a man whose friendship he believed in. This kind of ironic ignorance is repeated in other relationships in Othello. None of the characters truly recognises the real honesty or depravity of those they interact with.
• GENRE, STRUCTURE & LANGUAGE (AO2)

  Timescale

  WAY TIME IS PRESENTED:

  The theory of a 'double time scheme' in Othello dates from the middle of the nineteenth century. There can be no doubt that there are inconsistencies in the way time is presented in Othello; it appears that the disintegration of Othello's mind and marriage occurs extremely fast and Iago recognises that he must move quickly if his plots are to remain concealed, but at the same time the characters also make statements that suggest time is moving quite slowly. Let us deal with these references first. In Act III Scene 3 Iago describes Cassio's lustful dream, which we are told occurred 'lately' (III.3.416) when the ensign shared the lieutenant's bed. In Act III Scene 4 Bianca complains to Cassio that he has stayed away from her a week and Othello himself says that he believes Desdemona has committed adultery with Cassio 'A thousand times' (V.2.210). It seems highly unlikely that Lodovico would be sent from Venice to install Cassio as governor within a week of Othello's arrival in Cyprus. These statements which suggest 'long time' are primarily designed to increase the plausibility of Othello's jealousy. But it is also necessary for Shakespeare to present the poisoning of Othello's mind occurring swiftly, without a substantial interval; it would be undramatic if Iago was to loosen his grip on his victim once he has him in his grasp.

  
  

  SHORT TIME:

  This brings us to the question of 'short time'. The first act of Othello takes place in one night, and then once the characters have arrived in Cyprus (after an interval travelling) time seems to move very swiftly, increasing the sense of claustrophobia and heightening the intensity of the drama. The characters land just before 'this present hour of five' (II.2.9-10), the wedding celebrations occur that evening, Cassio is cashiered the same night and we see Iago packing Roderigo off to bed at dawn the following morning. On this day Desdemona pleads for Cassio, having met with him earlier in the morning. Iago sees his chance and moves into action immediately. Between Act III Scene 3 and Act IV Scene 1 there might plausibly be a short interval, but thereafter there can be no break until the curtain falls at the end of Act V. It is this relentlessness that grips us in the theatre, where we do not notice the inconsistencies. It might also be argued that this insistence on 'short time' is a deliberate theatrical decision. Perhaps Shakespeare uses his time scheme to show us how powerful and unreasonable jealousy is; we know that Desdemona has not had the opportunity to commit adultery, and yet her husband becomes convinced she has betrayed him. 'Short time' also favours the dramatist Iago: is Othello perhaps a self-reflexive text in which the dramatist colludes with his villain?
• IMAGERY (AO2)


  OVERVIEW:

  The purpose of Shakespeare's use of imagery in Othello is to establish the dramatic atmosphere of the play. It also informs our understanding of characters and events. Figurative language and linguistic patterns can help to reinforce the themes and ideas that the dramatist wishes to explore. Some key images are discussed here.
• IMAGERY (AO2)

  Poisoning

  There are a number of images of poisoning, which we come to associate with Iago and his methods of manipulation.

  ACT I, SCENE 1:

  In Act, I Scene 1 the ensign says that he wants to 'poison his [Brabantio's] delight' (I.1) so that he can make trouble for Othello.

  
  

  ACT II, SCENE 1 & 3:

  In the following act, we learn that Iago's jealousy of the Moor is so strong that it 'Doth like a poisonous mineral gnaw my inwards' (II.1); so the ensign resolves to 'pour this pestilence into his ear' (II.3) and destroy Othello's 'sweet sleep' (II.3.)

  
  

  ACT III, SCENE 3:

  These references to poison are appropriate to Iago, whose actions are swift, insidious and deadly. Iago relishes the pain he causes, as we can see from his description of his methods in Act III Scene 3: "Dangerous conceits are in their natures poisons

  Which at the first are scarce found to distaste

  But with a little act upon the blood Burn like the mines of sulphur." (III.3)

  In the same scene, Othello describes how he feels tortured by jealousy, using images that recall Iago's words, 'If there be cords or knives, / Poison, or fire, or suffocating streams, / I'll not endure it. Would I were satisfied!' (III.3).

  
  

  ACT IV, SCENE 1:

  The most chilling reference to poison comes in Act IV Scene 1 when Othello decides to murder Desdemona:

  OTHELLO: "Get me some poison, Iago, this night. I'll not expostulate with her, lest her body and beauty unprovide my mind again. This night, Iago."

  IAGO: "Do it not with poison, strangle her in her bed - even the bed that she hath contaminated." (IV.1)

  His mind poisoned with foul thoughts, the hero now seeks to kill his wife in the bed that he thinks she has contaminated, poisoned with her lust. It is particularly ghastly that the real poisoner (Iago) suggests the method of killing Desdemona.
• IMAGERY (AO2)

  Hell and The Devil

  ACT I, SCENE 3:

  Iago is also associated with images of hell and the devil. He forges the link himself at the end of his soliloquy in Act I Scene 3. Outlining his evil intentions he says, 'Hell and night / Must bring this monstrous birth to the world's light' (I.3.402-3). Later there is the oxymoron, 'Divinity of hell!' followed by these lines:

  "When devils will their blackest sins put on

  They do suggest at first with heavenly shows

  As I do now" (II.3.)

  There is a delight in these lines, a revelling in evil and deception.

  
  

  ACT I, SCENE 1:

  Iago also describes Othello as 'a devil' (I.1.), but in this context, this seems to be a racial slur rather than a comment on Othello's character; elsewhere the ensign comments on the Moor's natural goodness, which makes his work easier. Iago's hellish designs succeed in making Othello see Desdemona as devilish.

  
  

  ACT III, SCENE 3:

  He makes a 'sacred vow' (III.3.) to wreak vengeance on her 'by yond marble heaven' (III.3), convincing himself that she is damned and must be stopped in her life of sin.

  
  

  ACT IV, SCENE 2:

  In Act IV Scene 2 Othello attempts to wring an admission of guilt from Desdemona:

  "Come, swear it, damn thyself, Lest, being like one of heaven, the devils themselves Should fear to seize thee" (IV.2)

  In this image, we see the enormity of Desdemona's crime from Othello's point of view. As he leaves in disgust, having failed to secure the confession he sought, Othello turns to Emilia and accuses her too; she 'keeps the gates of hell' for his wife (IV.2.94).

  
  

  ACT V, SCENE 2:

  Emilia turns these words on Othello in the final scene when she discovers Desdemona's murder; 'thou art a devil' she rages, 'the blacker devil' (V.2). But it is, of course, Iago who is revealed as the true devil in this scene, where he is rightfully described as a 'demi-devil' and 'hellish villain' (V.2).
• IMAGERY (AO2)

  Animals and Insects


  ACT I, SCENE 1:

  There are numerous references to animals and insects which chart Othello's downfall. In Iago's mouth, this imagery is reductive and negative. Several images suggest how much the villain despises his victims. In Act, I Scene 1 he sets out with Roderigo to 'Plague him [Brabantio] with flies' (I.1). When he describes Othello's match with Desdemona he uses crude animal imagery, 'an old black ram / Is tupping your white ewe' he informs the senator (I.1); his daughter has been 'covered' with 'a Barbary horse' (I.1.); the couple are 'making the beast with two backs' (I.1.).

  
  

  ACT I, SCENE 3 & ACT II, SCENE 1:

  Othello is an object of scorn too. Iago is confident that the general will 'tenderly be led by th'nose / As asses are' (I.3), and made 'egregiously an ass' (II.1.). He is sure that Cassio can be humiliated too; 'With as little a web as this will I ensnare as great a fly as Cassio' (II.1) he gloats.

  
  

  ACT III, SCENE 3:

  Othello is infected by this imagery and begins to speak in the same terms. But the animal imagery in Othello's speeches reveals the hero's misery, rather than sneering triumph. In Act III Scene 3 he says:

  "I had rather be a toad And live upon this vapour of a dungeon Than keep a corner in a thing I love

  For others' uses." (III.3)

  
  

  ACT IV, SCENE 2:

  This image is repeated in Act IV Scene 2 when Othello describes his sorrow at 'losing' the innocent Desdemona he loved so much:

  "But there where I have garnered up my heart,

  Where either I must live or bear no life,

  The fountain from which my current runs

  Or else dries up - to be discarded thence!

  Or keep it as a cistern for foul toads

  To knot and gender in!" (IV.2)

  
  

  ACT III, SCENE 3:

  The hero is mortified by corruption. Iago keeps Othello on the rack with images of bestial lust; when the Moor demands proof of his suspicions he replies sharply:

  "What shall I say? where's satisfaction?

  It is impossible you should see this

  Were they as prime as goats, as hot as monkeys,

  As salt as wolves in pride;" (III.3)

  
  

  ACT IV, SCENE 1:

  We know that Othello has lost all power of reason and can no longer fight off the terrible images of lust his imagination has been polluted with when he himself yelps 'Goats and monkeys!' in Act IV Scene 1 (IV.1.263). He has become the 'horned man', the 'monster, and a beast' he described earlier in the same scene (IV.1.62). It is horribly ironic that Desdemona, who, we are informed could 'sing the savageness out of a bear' (IV.1.186) cannot convince her husband that his suspicions are false.
• IMAGERY (AO2)

  The Sea and Military Heroism

  ACT I, SCENE 3:

  In stark contrast to the imagery associated with Iago, the imagery commonly associated with the noble Othello of the first half of the play is suggestive of power and bravery. Images of the sea and military heroism abound. Othello describes his illustrious career with dignity in Act I Scene 3. Desdemona echoes him when she says:

  "My downright violence and scorn of fortunes

  May trumpet to the world. My heart's subdued

  Even to the very quality of my lord:" (I.3)

  
  

  ACT II, SCENE 1:

  By using the terminology of war to describe her love we see that the heroine is 'well tun'd' (II.1.) with her husband; it is fitting then that he describes her as his 'fair warrior' (II.1.).

  
  

  ACT III, SCENE 3:

  Later, when Othello feels his marital harmony has been destroyed we sense how deeply he feels Desdemona's supposed betrayal as he eggs himself on to revenge:

  "Like to the Pontic sea Whose icy current and compulsive course Ne'er feels retiring ebb but keeps due on To the Propontic and the Hellespont: Even so my bloody thoughts with violent pace Shall ne'er look back, ne'er ebb to humble love" (III.3)

  The imagery here suggests the violence to come, violence that has always been implicit in the sea and military imagery associated with Othello.

  
  

  ACT V, SCENE 2:

  As he prepares to take his own life Othello again refers to his military career, but also recognises that he has reached 'my journey's end, here is my butt / And very sea-mark of my utmost sail' (V.2). This final image of the sea is appropriately poignant. By reverting to the noble imagery associated with him earlier in the play the hero is able to raise himself again in our esteem.