evolutionary explanations

• what is ethology


  •the study of how the forces of evolution have adapted the behaviour of animalswhich areinheritedfrom one generation to the next..
• Who was Konrad lorenz?

  •an Austrian zoologist, animal psychologist, and ornithologist (bird expert).•is considered one of the founders ofmodern ethology. Lorenz studied instinctive behaviour in animals, especially in greylag geese and jackdaws. Working with geese, he re-discovered the principle of imprinting.Lorenz was a close associate ofTinbergen, and together with Karl von Frisch the three were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1973
• how


  could aggression be seen as an adaptive trait?•Aggression is adaptive to survival becausea defeated animal is rarely killedbut rather is forced to establish territory elsewhere which reduces competition.•Aggression establishesdominance in hierarchies. Male chimpanzees use aggression to climb their troop’s social hierarchy. Their dominance gives them special status (e.g. mating right over females).•Pettit (1988)argues this happens in humans too; he argues that aggression played an important role in the development of some children’s dominance over others as it would be adaptive due to the benefits it brings e.g. power to get your own way, resources etc.
• what did lorenz find?

  •Since not all acts of aggression leads to death, ritualistic behaviours - defined as a series of behaviours conducted in the same, set order are important.•After an aggressive confrontation between wolves, the‘loser’ (through an act of appeasement) will make themselves vulnerable to the victor (e.g. wolves displaying their neck) as a sign of accepting defeat.
• why does the loser make themselves vulnerable?

  It ensures no further aggressive behaviour between the two, thus increasing the likelihood of survival of the loser's species.
• what is the evolutionary theory?

  •theorised byCharles Darwinin his book “The Origin of Species”•Evolutionrefersto gradual changes in an inherited characteristic of a species over many generations.allspeciesshare some genes with each other - they all havecommon ancestors.
• What is survival of the fittest?

  any characteristic or behaviour that increases the chance that an individual will survive and reproduce, would be passed onto future generations.
• what is natural selection?


  The process by which heritable traits become more common in an environment.

  Organisms that adapt are healthier, live longer & are more likely to reproduce
• how have patterns of behaviour evolved?


  through natural selection, in the same way that physical characteristics have evolved.adaptive behaviours, or behaviours that increase reproductive success, are kept and passed on from one generation to the next.
• what is sexual jealousy?

  a form of aggression- due tocuckoldry(males who are unknowingly investing parental effort in offspring that are not genetically their own).the false father would have to raise off-spring that are not his own – anyinvestment in offspringthat do not share the males genes is a waste of his resources and contributes to the survival of a rival’s genes.
• Why is sexual jealousy as an explanation for aggression gender biased?

  •Men in our evolutionary past who could avoid cuckoldry were more reproductively successful.sexual jealousy is a mechanism that has evolved to increaseanti-cuckoldry behavioursin males.drive the often-aggressivestrategiesmen employ to retain their partners and prevent them from ‘straying’ - such strategies that were adaptive in our evolutionary past.
• what are male retention strategies?

  Wilson and Daly (1996)researched and identified several ‘mate retention strategies’ that males display in relationships which involve aggression and even physical violence, including:•Direct guarding– Includes male vigilance over a partner’s behaviour e.g. checking their phones, telling them what to wear etc.•Negative inducements– such as issuing threats of dire consequences e.g. “I’ll kill myself if you leave” etc.Buss (1988), states use of violence or threats or violence to a perceived love rival.
• What did Wilson et al find?


  •women who reported mate retention strategies in their partners i.e. they agreed with statements like ‘he insists on knowing who you are with and where you are at all times’ weretwiceas likely to have suffered physical violence at the hand of their partners.•Of these women,73%required medical attention and53%said they feared for their lives.
• what was the evaluation of Wilson and Daly's study?

  they used interviews...
• What is an issue and debate of Wilson and Daly study?

  suffer fromevolutionary reductionism,as they argue that strategies for choosing a mate are theresult of genetic inheritance and a striving for reproductive success;they do not consider other factors. However, this is not always as straightforward in real life, where individual differences in partner’s choice play a huge part. For example, evolutionary explanationsfail to account for homosexual relationshipswhere choice of partner clearly does not result inreproductive successand so doesn't have an evolutionary advantage. Meaning that the research ultimatelylacks interval validityis not likely to give a true picture of the mate retention strategies used in relationships.
• what is intimate partner violence?

  •Shackelford et al. (2005)studiedintimate partner violent(IPV)in107married heterosexual couples who had been married for less than a year.•Females were required to fill out aspouse report questionnaireassessinghow violent their partners werein the relationship.•Males were required to complete amate inventory questionnairewhich assessed their mate retention behavioursin various categories like direct guarding/negative inducements etc.
• what was shackelfords findings?

  •found astrong positive correlationbetween men’s reports of their mate retention behaviour and women's reports of their partner’s physical violent.•Men who used guarding or negative inducements (e.g. threats to kill) were more likely to use physical violence against their partners.
• evaluate shackelfords research


  used questionnaires....
• what is bullying agression?

  the result of a power imbalance - because there is a more powerful person vs. a weaker person.
• What did volk argue?


  bullying is associated with traits that are attractive to the opposite sex i.e. for males: dominance, acquisition of resources.

  also argued that females might bully in relationships as a method of controlling their partner and securing fidelity.
• Using your knowledge of evolutionary explanations of aggression, account for these

  high levels of aggression in young males.

  Possible application:•Male aggression derives from need to acquire/defend resources such as mates or territory (in the city) and/or to establish status (in groups of peers or between gangs).•Male aggression derives from sexual jealousy of other males who may have sex with or steal their mates.
• what research support is there for aggression and sexual jealousy?

  Shackelford et al. (2005)is a particularly dramatic example. Strategies such as direct guarding and negative inducements are overwhelmingly used by males, against both females and other males.Such research indicates aclear link between the greater risk of infidelity, cuckoldry and aggression. This supports evolutionary explanations concerning the adaptive value of aggression.
• what research is there to show evolutionary explanations account for gender differences?

  •Campbell (1999)suggested thatfemalesare more likely to engage in acts ofverbal aggression, as opposed to physical,as this ensures that their own survival, as well as the survival of their offspring, is not endangered as this could endanger both her and her child.also prevents females from being involved inlife-threatening physicalconfrontations with their partners, and so furtherincreases their chance of survivalthrough the use of non-aggressive methods of resolving conflicts (Buss and Shackleford).
• What is real life application for the evolutionary of bullying

  •focuses on the idea that bullies have an opportunity to gain advantages, Volt therefore argues thatinterventionsneed to increase the costs of bullying and boost the rewards of prosocial behaviour too.•One way to achieve this could be to encourage bullies to complete aggressively but fairly in sporting activities. This way they can display their prowess, strength and other attractive qualities.Evolutionary explanations have helped us to devise more effective anti-bullying interventions.
• what are the cultural differences of evolutionary explanations of aggression

  •The!Kung San people of Kalaharihave very negative attitudes towards the use of aggression. Aggressive behaviour is discouraged in childhood and those who seek to raise their status and reputation within the community are diminished.WhereasThe Yanomamo people of Brazilaka the fierce people, culturally value aggression. Aggression is required and accepted and used to gain status within their highly structured hierarchyEvolutionary explanations of aggression lacks cultural relativity as it doesn’t consider the wide cultural differences that exist in terms of aggression.
• what are the methodological issues with evolutionary theories?

  the studies used arecorrelational, meaning that there is only a correlation between aggression and the use of mate retention strategies.Correlation research may suffer from the ‘third factor problem’, where theremay be a third contributory factor which has not been considered reducing the validity of the findings.These studies may also jump to make causal conclusions, when really correlations can never demonstrate a causal relationship.