Paper 2

• Photosynthesis is going to take water, carbon dioxide, and turn it into oxygen and glucose
• Light


  Not a reactant in photosynthesis, but a condition that's needed
• Photosynthesis formula

  H2O + CO2 → O2 + C6H12O6
• The photosynthesis formula needs to be balanced, with the numbers in the correct place
• Photosynthesis

  An endothermic reaction that takes in energy
• Requirements for photosynthesis

  • Chlorophyll
  • Water
  • Carbon dioxide
  • Sunlight
• Percentage level of carbon dioxide

  Increases the rate of photosynthesis up to a point
• Past the point where carbon dioxide is no longer the limiting factor

  Need to increase other factors like water, light, or temperature to increase photosynthesis
• Temperature


  Increases the rate of photosynthesis up to an optimal point, then decreases as enzymes are denatured
• Light intensity


  Increases the rate of photosynthesis up to a point where it is no longer the limiting factor
• The actual rate of photosynthesis depends on many different factors at once
• Glucose from photosynthesis


  Stored as starch, with potatoes being an obvious example
• Leaf structure


  • Palisade mesophyll, cuticle, upper and lower epidermis, spongy mesophyll, guard cells and stomata, xylem and phloem
• Factors affecting transpiration rate

  • Bright light
  • High temperature
  • High wind
  • Low humidity
• Parts of the endocrine system

  • Pituitary gland
  • Thyroid
  • Adrenal glands
  • Pancreas
  • Ovaries
  • Testes
• Testosterone


  Produced by testes, has effects of growing muscles, making genitals grow, and increasing hair growth
• Estrogen


  Produced in ovaries, responsible for maturation of eggs and menstrual cycle
• Insulin


  Produced by pancreas, important for regulating blood glucose levels
• Adrenalin


  Produced by adrenal glands, part of the fight or flight response
• Thyroxine


  Produced by thyroid, important in regulating metabolism
• Menstrual cycle


  1. Follicle stimulating hormone rises and peaks to grow egg

  2. Luteinizing hormone released to release egg

  3. Estrogen builds up to stimulate luteinizing hormone

  4. Progesterone builds up to prepare uterus lining

  5. Lining breaks down if no implantation
• Contraception methods


  • Condoms (barrier)
  • Pill (hormonal)
  • IUD (hormonal)
  • Diaphragm (barrier)
  • Sterilization (permanent)
• Around one in six people experience infertility, with half due to male reasons and half due to female reasons
• IVF


  Involves taking many drugs with nasty side effects, is very expensive, and has a 40% success rate
• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment
• Things homeostasis controls


  • Blood glucose levels
  • Water levels
  • Temperature
• Control of blood glucose

  Pancreas produces insulin when levels rise, which causes cells to remove glucose from blood, and produces glucagon when levels fall, which causes stored glucose to be released back into the blood
• Type 1 diabetes


  Pancreas doesn't produce enough insulin
• Type 2 diabetes


  Cells become insensitive to insulin
• Symptoms of both types of diabetes include loss of weight, increased urination, thirst, blurry vision, fatigue, and hunger
• Diffusion


  Movement of substances from high concentration to low concentration down a concentration gradient
• Glycogen


  Stored form of glucose in muscle and liver cells
• Glucagon converting glycogen into glucose


  Causes blood glucose levels to rise again
• Type 1 diabetes


  Pancreas doesn't produce the right amount of insulin
• Symptoms of diabetes


  • Loss of weight
  • Increased need to urinate
  • Increased thirst
  • Blurry vision
  • Fatigue
  • Hunger
• Treatment for type 1 diabetes

  Insulin injections
• Treatment for type 2 diabetes

  Controlling diet, exercise
• Diffusion


  Movement of gases or dissolved particles from high concentration to low concentration
• Diffusion in the body

  • In the lungs (alveoli and capillaries)
  • In the gut (villi)
• Components of blood


  • Serum (liquid)
  • Red blood cells
  • White blood cells
  • Platelets