learning

• learning


  process of acquiring knowledge, skills, or behaviours through experience
• Behaviourist approaches to learning

  theories that propose learning occurs by interacting with the external environment
• classical conditioning


  learning through involuntary association between a NS and an UCS resulting in a CR
• what are the 3 stages of classical conditioning?

  1. before conditioning
  2. during conditioning
  3. after conditioning
• before conditioning


  stage of classical conditioning, during which the NS has no associations and therefore does not produce any significant response.
• what does the before conditioning stage involve?

  • neural stimulus (NS): produces no significant response prior to conditioning.
  • unconditioned stimulus (UCS): produces an unconscious response.
  • unconditioned response (UCR): a naturally occurring behaviour in response to a stimulus.

  
• during conditioning


  NS is repeatedly paired with the UCS, producing the UCR

  
• after conditioning


  NS becomes the CS, producing a CR.

  
• what does the after conditioning stage involve?

  • CS which is the stimulus (originally the NS) that produces a CR after being repeatedly paired with an UCS.
  • CR which is is the response that occurs involuntarily after the CS is presented.
• Operant Conditioning


  three-phase learning process involving an antecedent, behaviour, and consequence, whereby the consequence of a behaviour determines the likelihood that it will reoccur

  
• Antecedent


  The stimulus or event that precedes and often elicits a particular behaviour.
• example of an antecedent


  owner saying the command word ‘sit’ to their dog.
• behaviour


  voluntary actions that occur in the presence of the antecedent.
• example of a behaviour


  dog sits in response to the command word ‘sit’
• consequence


  outcome of the behaviour, which determines the likelihood that it will occur again.
• example of a consequence


  owner gives the dog a treat after they sit upon command. This increases the likelihood that the dog will sit on command again in the future
• types of consequences

  reinforcement

  positive reinforcement

  negative reinforcement

  punishment

  positive punishment

  negative punishment
• reinforcement


  consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.
• positive reinforcement


  addition of a desirable stimulus, which in turn increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.
• negative reinforcement


  removal of an undesirable stimulus, which in turn increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.
• punishment


  consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.
• positive punishment


  addition of an undesirable stimulus, which in turn decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring
• negative punishment


  removal of a desirable stimulus, which in turn decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.
• example of a positive reinforcement

  studying hard for a test and then receiving a high mark. Receiving the high mark acts as positive reinforcement for the behaviour of studying hard for school assessments, which increases the likelihood that the behaviour (studying hard) will reoccur.
• example of a negative reinforcement


  going for a run when you are stressed, which in turn helps to alleviate your feelings of stress. The removal of the undesirable experience of tension and discomfort acts as negative reinforcement for the behaviour of going for a run when you are stressed which increases the likelihood that the behaviour (going for a run) will reoccur.
• example of positive punishment


  friend criticising you for arriving late to a catch-up. The addition of your friend’s negative remarks acts as positive punishment for the behaviour of arriving late to a social catch-up, decreasing the likelihood that the behaviour (being late) will reoccur.
• example of negative punishment


  not being allowed to go to a party for bad behaviour at home. The removal of the desirable experience of going to a party acts as negative punishment for the bad behaviour at home. This decreases the likelihood that the behaviour (bad behaviour at home) will reoccur.
• classical and operant conditioning in learning

  • Both: behaviourist approaches & three-phase process
  • Operant conditioning: Learns voluntary behaviour
  • classical conditioning: Involves involuntary behaviour.
• model


  individual who is performing the behaviour that is being observed
• attention


  individuals focus on the model's behaviour and its consequences.
• what did Bandura identify for factors influencing learners' attention to models?

  • Perceived positively
  • Liked
  • High-status (e.g., celebrity)
• retention


  individuals create mental representations to remember model's behaviour and if met, attention is stored in memory
• reproduction


  individuals must possess physical and mental abilities to replicate behaviour.
• motivation


  the individual must want to reproduce the behaviour
• motivation can be either?

  intrinsic or extrinsic.

  • Intrinsic motivations occur from within the individual, such as the desire to perform well on an exam.
  • Extrinsic motivations occur from factors that are external to the individual, such as the desire to receive praise from your teacher for doing well on an exam.
• reinforcement


  individual receives a positive consequence for the behaviour which makes them more likely to reproduce the behaviour again in the future.
• what are the 3 different types of reinforcement?

  self-reinforcement

  external reinforcement

  vicarious reinforcement
• self-reinforcement


  behaviour is reinforced through factors internal to the individual, such as feeling proud of themselves.
• external reinforcement


  behaviour is reinforced by factors external to the individual, such as receiving an award.
• vicarious reinforcement


  behaviour is reinforced by observing the reinforcement of another person performing the same behaviour. This can enhance individual’s motivation and make them more likely to reproduce the behaviour again in the future, despite not being directly reinforced themselves.