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• Ethics


  Applying moral rules in real life, making decisions based on what's right and wrong, thinking about what's best for everyone involved and trying to do what's fair, the idea is to help people and make sure things are done in a good way
• Peter Singer: 'Understanding the origins of ethics allows us to critically examine our moral intuitions and consider the consequences of our actions in today's world.'
• What ethics is not

  • Just about sex
  • Just some idealistic theory
  • Solely tied to religion
  • Relative to the society in which you live
• The most philosophically challenging view about ethics that Peter Singer shall deny in this opening chapter is that ethics is relative or subjective
• Peter Singer's perspective


  Moral judgments should be based on objective criteria rather than subjective cultural beliefs, ethical evaluation should be based on the consequences of the actions involved, moral rightness or wrongness depends on whether it promotes overall well-being or causes harm
• When faced with challenging ethical decisions, merely deferring to societal norms doesn't resolve the dilemma; individuals must ultimately make their own judgments
• Theories that ethics is not

  • Emotivism (ethical judgments express emotional attitudes rather than describing them)
  • Theory of Universal Prescriptivism (ethical judgments function more like prescriptions or commands rather than factual statements)
  • Appearance of Objective Moral Standards (statements with a sense of objectivity but are ultimately illusory)
• Morality is a mix of evolved intuitions and cultural influences
• True adherence to ethical standards

  Involves being able to justify and defend one's actions based on some ethical reasoning
• Ethical conduct


  Requires motivations and justifications that transcend mere self-interest and align with principles that benefit society as a whole
• The Golden Rule


  Attributed to Moises, "Do not do unto others as you would have the way do unto you", treating others the way you want to be treated
• The idea of ethical conduct is acceptable from a universal perspective regardless of the individual being applicable to all human beings
• Stoics


  Ethics derived from universal law
• Kant's Categorical Imperative


  "Act only on the maxim through which you can at the same time will and it should become a universal law"
• Maxim


  Guides an individual's behavior, essentially the motive or intention behind the action
• R.M. Hare's theory


  If a person did an action if all will make the same judgment in the situation then it is ethical (universalizability)
• Philosophers who appealed to an imaginary impartial spectator as the test of moral judgments

  • Hutcheson
  • Hume
  • Adam Smith
• Impartial Spectator


  An ideal observer who is unbiased and rational
• Impartial Observer


  An observer who is sympathetic, and understanding, the role of sympathy and social sentiments in sharing moral judgments
• Sentiment


  A view or attitude towards a situation or event/opinion
• Propriety


  Accepted standards/behavior
• Utilitarianism


  The ability to maximize overall happiness or utility for the greatest number of people
• John Rawls' "Veil of Ignorance"

  Individuals choose principles that will benefit everyone, not knowing where they themselves would stand in the society
• Sartre's Existentialism


  Responsibility in making moral values/choices
• Habermas' Critical Theory


  Focus on communicative rationality
• The fundamental challenges in defining ethics are: 1) If we define it broadly and are surrounded by various ethical theories then some are different, 2) If we narrow down the definition to fit one particular ethical theory it will appear biased and exclude other valid perspectives
• Many attempts to deduce a single ethical theory but they struggle to overcome the problem
• Preference Utilitarianism


  A moral theory that suggests the best action is the one that maximizes the satisfaction of people's preferences or desires, decision-making is based on what people prefer
• Hedonistic Utilitarianism


  A moral theory that suggests the best action is the one that maximizes the satisfaction of people's preferences or desires, in basic terms it means decision-making based on what people prefer, maximizing pleasure minimizing pain
• No attempt has made general acceptance of a single ethical theory
• We are still open to many theories that can be used in many ethical issues that we will face in the future because even though there are many existing theories, no attempt has made general acceptance
• Gyges


  A shepherd who found a golden ring that allowed him to become invisible
• Gyges' discovery of the ring's power

  1. Went into a crack and found a dead person wearing a golden ring

  2. Took the ring

  3. Discovered that by twisting the ring on his finger, he could make himself vanish
• Gyges' newfound ability to become invisible


  Allowed him to act without anyone's knowledge
• Gyges' exploitation of the ring's power

  1. Seduced the queen

  2. Conspired with the queen to assassinate the king

  3. Seized control of the kingdom
• Plato


  Born: 427 BCE, Died: 347 BCE, Student of Socrates, Teacher of Aristotle, Founder of The Academy, Most renowned for his philosophical writings, including "The Republic"
• Glaucon


  Plato's older brother, Engaged in a conversation with Adeimantus about morality, the concept of the good, and defining what is truly good, Aimed to determine whether justice is superior to injustice
• Gyges' discovery of the ring

  1. Was a shepherd for the King of Lydia

  2. During a storm, there was an earthquake that made a crack in the ground

  3. Found a dead person wearing a golden ring
• Justice


  The upholding of rights and laws within a society
• Injustice


  The violation of those rights and laws