Addiction

• a disorder in which an individual takes a substance or engages in a behaviour that is pleasurable but eventually becomes compulsive with harmful consequences.
• physical dependance - a state of the body due to habitual drug use that results in a withdrawal syndrome when use is stopped or reduced
• psychological dependence - a compulsion to continue taking a drug because its use is rewarding
• tolerance - a reduction in response to a drug, so that the addicted needs more to get the same desired effect.
• withdrawal syndrome - a set of symptoms that develop when individual abstains or reduces drug use.
• genetic vulnerability - any inherited predisposition that increases the risk of a disorder or condition.
• risk factors - any internal or external influence that increases the likelihood someone will start using or engaging in addictive behaviours.
• stress - a psychological and physiological state of arousal that arises when we believe we do not have the ability to cope with the perceived threat.
• personality - patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving that differ between individuals. These are relatively consistent from one situation to another, and over time.
• family influences - the effects that other members of our families have on our thoughts, feelings and behaviours over the course of our development.
• peers - people who share our interests and are of similar age, social status and background to ourselves. Peers become more influential in adolescence, when we spend more time with them and less with family.
• The five particularly important risk factors are:

  genetics

  stress

  personality

  family influences

  peers
• •  dopamine receptors -
  • The way that the neurotransmitter  

  dopamine communicates in the brain  

  • depends on the presence of receptors for  

  dopamine molecules on the surfaces of  

  neurons.  
• D2 receptor - abnormally low numbers is associated with addiction, because less dopamine receptors means that they will need more of a substance to produce normal activation of their dopamine system.
• DRD2-A1 people with this variant have been found to have low numbers of D2 receptors
• Another factor is enzyme metabolism - some individuals are more able to break down substances than others and this is linked to addiction. For example Michael Pianezz found that some people lack a fully functioning enzyme (CYP2A6) which is mainly responsible for metabolizing nicotine, they also smoke significantly less.

  Because the expression is genetically determined, individuals with this are at greater risk of nicotine addiction.
• Adoption studies?

  Kendler et al used data from the National Swedish Adoption Study, looked especially at adults who had been adopted away from biological families where at least one parent had an addiction.

  These people were at greater risk (8.6%) than adoptees with no parent of addiction (4.2%).
• Further strength of genetics is their indirect link e.g through self control and the negative downward spiral could lead them to drugs
• Psychological factors of addiction risk?


  Stress, personality, family influences and peers
• Stress and childhood traumatic events - Jeffrey Epstein et al looked at data from the National Women's study and found a strong correlation of being raped as a child and alcohol addiction as an adult (only for those diagnosed with PTSD).

  Susan Anderson - early experiences of severe stress can damage the brain in sensitive development period, this creates vulnerability
• Personality - no such thing as an addictive personality but Butler and Montgomery suggested that individual traits like hostility and neuroticism are linked.

  ASPD - impulsivity
• Family influences - perceived parental approval perhaps is the most consistent factor.

  Livingston et al - found that final year high school students who were allowed to drink alcohol at home, were more likely to drink significantly at college.

  The key factors here are perceived approval and exposure
• Peers - exceeds family influences in older children

  Mary O'Connell found there are three major elements to peer influence that are a risk factor for alcohol addiction

  1. attitudes and norms are influenced by association with users
  2. the experienced peers provide opportunities
  3. they over estimated how much peers are drinking

  For drug use it can just be general rule breaking.
• What is the realistic limitation to all risk factors?


  its more realistic to consider interactions between all risk factors

  Linda Mayes and Nancy Suchman point out that different combinations of risk factors partly determine the nature and severity. Furthermore these risk factors could also be protective factors. Therefore it is complex and there are many pathways.
• What is the correlational limitation to risk factors?

  The evidence collected is correlational not cause and effect.

  Addictions can create stress due to lifestyle, and its difficult to separate. For example, family influences attract them to a rule breaking peer group.
• What is the limitation of the distinction between ultimate and proximate risk factors?

  Lara rey et al - novelty seeking and the D4 receptors.

  Research shows that novelty seekers are more likely to become alcohol addicts but its been highlighted that the novelty seeking is the proximate factor and the gene that leads to this is the ultimate.
• Strength of risk factors?

  Real life application - if we understand we can identify those at risk.

  Nancy Trobler et al created a peer pressure resistant training programme to prevent young people taking up smoking.