Long quiz

• Opcode


  Specifies the operation to be performed
• Operand


  Specifies the data or memory location for the operation
• Classification of Instruction Set

  • 8085 Microprocessor Instruction Set
• 8085 Microprocessor


  • 8-bit microprocessor introduced by Intel in 1976, utilizing N-MOS technology
  • Requires only a +5 volts power supply, unlike its predecessor the 8080
• Microprocessor Architecture Overview


  • Accumulator
  • Registers
  • ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit)
  • Control Unit
• Data Transfer Instructions


  • MOV: Move data between registers or memory locations
  • MVI: Move immediate data into a register or memory location
  • LXI: Load 16-bit immediate data into register pair
  • LDA: Load accumulator with data from a memory address
  • STA: Store accumulator content at a memory address
• Arithmetic Instructions


  • ADD: Add contents of register/memory to the accumulator
  • SUB: Subtract contents of register/memory from the accumulator
  • INR: Increment the contents of a register/memory
  • DCR: Decrement the contents of a register/memory
  • ADC: Add register/memory contents to the accumulator with carry
  • SBB: Subtract contents of register/memory from the accumulator with borrow
• Logical Instructions


  • AND: Perform bitwise AND operation with accumulator
  • ORA: Perform bitwise OR operation with accumulator
  • XRA: Perform bitwise XOR operation with accumulator
  • CMP: Compare accumulator with register/memory
  • CMA: Complement accumulator
• Branching Instructions


  • JMP: Jump to a specified memory address
  • JC: Jump if carry flag is set
  • JNC: Jump if carry flag is not set
  • JZ: Jump if zero flag is set
  • JNZ: Jump if zero flag is not set
• Input/Output Instructions


  • IN: Input data from specified port address into accumulator
  • OUT: Output data from accumulator to specified port address
• Control Instructions


  • NOP: No operation
  • HLT: Halt the microprocessor
  • EI: Enable interrupts
  • DI: Disable interrupts
• Addressing Modes


  • Immediate Addressing
  • Direct Addressing
  • Indirect Addressing
  • Register Addressing
  • Indexed Addressing
  • Relative Addressing
• 8051 Microcontroller


  • Single-chip microcontroller introduced by Intel in 1980
  • Features an 8-bit CPU, separate Program Memory (ROM) and Data Memory (RAM), along with Special Function Registers (SFRS)
  • Simple architecture, widely used in embedded systems due to its large instruction set and wide availability
• Groups of Instructions for 8051 Microcontroller

  • Arithmetic Instructions
  • Branch Instructions
  • Data Transfer Instructions
  • Logic Instructions
  • Bit-oriented Instructions
• Arithmetic Instructions for 8051 Microcontroller

  • ADD A, #data: Adds immediate data to the accumulator
  • SUBB A, #data: Subtracts immediate data from the accumulator with borrow
  • INC A: Increments the accumulator
  • DEC A: Decrements the accumulator
• Branch Instructions for 8051 Microcontroller

  • AJMP addr11: Absolute jump to specified address
  • SJMP rel: Short jump (relative)
  • JZ rel: Jump if accumulator is zero
  • JNZ rel: Jump if accumulator is not zero
• Data Transfer Instructions for 8051 Microcontroller

  • MOV A, #data: Move immediate data to accumulator
  • MOV Rn, A: Move accumulator to register
  • MOV direct, A: Move accumulator to RAM location
  • MOV A, direct: Move data from RAM location to accumulator
• Logic Instructions for 8051 Microcontroller


  • ANL A, #data: Performs bitwise AND operation between immediate data and accumulator
  • ORL A, direct: Performs bitwise OR operation between accumulator and data at a RAM location
  • XRL A, #data: Performs bitwise exclusive OR operation between immediate data and accumulator
  • CPL A: Complements the bits of the accumulator
• Addressing Modes for 8051 Microcontroller

  • Immediate Addressing
  • Register Addressing
  • Direct Addressing
  • Indirect Addressing
  • Indexed Addressing
• Microprogramming


  • Technique for implementing control logic of a processor's instruction execution by breaking down complex instructions into simpler microinstructions stored in control memory
  • Components: Control store, control sequencer, and control logic
  • Pros: Offers flexibility, simplification, and ease of debugging
  • Cons: Incurs performance overhead and increased complexity compared to hardwired control
• Microprogramming Overview


  • Shortening ROM words has drawbacks: Requires multiple ROM words for a sequence, increases decoding levels and ROM accesses, slowing down implementations
  • Designers often prefer vertical microcode despite inefficiencies due to its similarity to assembly language
• Branch Jump Microwords


  • Include fields for: Selecting a signal for testing, Specifying the value for comparison, Determining the next ROM word based on the condition
• Register Transfer/Operation Microword


  • Contains three fields: Register source, Register destination, Operation field for functional units like the ALU
• Microoperations Categorization


  • Sources: PC, IR, MBR, AC, MAR, Bus MBR, Result
  • Destinations: RBUS, MBUS, IR, MAR, Mem Data Bus
  • Operations: ALU ADD, ALU PASS B, O → PC, PC + 1 → PC, Read/Write
• Microprogramming Encoding


  • Nine sources encoded in a 4-bit field, Seven destinations encoded in 3 bits, Six operations encoded in 3 bits
• Optimization opportunities exist in encoding destinations, saving ROM bits
• As more control signals are encoded in ROM, the format shifts from horizontal to vertical
• Three Levels of Programming Language

  • Machine Language Programming
  • Assembly Language
  • High-Level Language
• Machine Language Programming


  Lowest level of programming using binary codes directly understood by microprocessor, each representing a specific operation like addition or data movement
• Assembly Language


  Programming language using mnemonic codes to represent machine language instructions, making programming more manageable and human-readable
• High-Level Language


  Abstract and user-friendly programming languages allowing programmers to write code using natural language constructs like loops, conditionals, and functions
• Examples of High-Level Languages


  • C
  • C++
  • (widely used for microprocessors and microcontrollers)
  • Python (popular for microcontrollers with Python interpreters)
  • Java (utilized in microcontrollers with virtual machines)
  • BASIC (used for some microcontrollers, especially those with BASIC interpreters)
  • Verilog (a hardware description language used for designing and verifying digital circuits)
  • VHDL (another hardware description language used for designing and verifying digital circuits)
• Examples of Specialized Programming Languages

  • SPIN (used for Parallax Propeller microcontroller)
  • Forth (stack-based language)
  • LUA (lightweight language used for some microcontrollers, especially those with limited resources)
• Microcontroller-Specific Languages


  • Arduino (C-based)
  • MicroPython (Python-based)
  • PICBASIC (BASIC-based)
  • AVR-GCC (C-based)
  • Keil μVision (C-based)
• Programming Steps for Microprocessors

  • Understanding the Microprocessor Architecture
  • Defining the Problem
  • Designing the Algorithm
  • Writing the Code
  • Assembling and Simulating the Code
  • Testing and Debugging
  • Optimizing the Code
• 1. based language


  Used for programming ARM-based microcontrollers
• Programming Steps for Microcontrollers

  1. Understanding the Microcontroller Architecture

  2. Defining the Problem

  3. Designing the Algorithm

  4. Writing the Code

  5. Assembling and Simulating the Code

  6. Testing and Debugging

  7. Optimizing the Code
• Understanding the Microcontroller Architecture


  Knowing about the registers, memory map, and available instructions
• Defining the Problem


  Clearly define the problem you want to solve with the microcontroller
• Designing the Algorithm


  Break down the problem into smaller steps and design an algorithm to solve it