atypical gender development

• transexual gene

  • Hare et al looked at DNA of 112 MtF
  • found they were more likely to have a longer version of the androgen receptor gene
  • effect - reduced action of testosterone - may have effect on gender development in womb (eg. under-masculinising the brain)
• brain sex theory

  • trans brains may not match genetic sex
  • BSTc in the thalamus - 2x as many neurones in male than female brain
  • BSTc size may correlate w gender not sex
  • found in studies that neurone number in trans females similar to bio females
• phantom limb and cross wiring

  • suggested gender dysphoria is innate phantom limb syndrome
  • proposed image of sex organs innately hardwired in manner opposite to bio sex
  • eg. estimated 2/3 trans males report sensations of phantom penis childhood onwards
• environmental effects - pesticides

  • bio (not internal or genetic)
  • eg. pesticide DDT contains oestrogen -> males prenatally exposed to female hormones = mismatch between genetic sex and hormone influences
  • study found boys born to mothers exposed to dioxins (promote oestrogen) displayed feminised play
• mental illness

  • proposed link - childhood trauma or maladaptive upbringing
  • Coates et al case history of boy w gender dysphoria, proposed was a defensive reaction to mother's depression following an abortion when he was 3 - to resolve anxiety
• mother son relationships

  • result of distorted parental attitudes
  • clinical interviews, found overly close mother son relationships = greater female identification and confused gender identity
• father daughter relationships

  • suggested due to severe paternal rejection in childhood
  • unconsciously think will gain acceptance from father if become male
• support for cross wiring

  Ramachandran and McGeoch

  • comparing gender dysphoria patients to non who've had surgery to remove sex organs
  • 60% of non gd men who have penile amputation experience phantom penis - only 30% of gd (bio) men - suggesting there was no wiring to 'penis representation' in first place
  • only 10% of trans men experience phantom breast

  suggests diff wired brains
• support for social explanations

  Owen-Anderson et al

  • found high levels of emotional overattachment in mothers of boys w gender dysphoria, supporting view of underlying psychopathology

  BUT Cole et al

  • studied 435 invs w gd, found no greater range of psychiatric disorders

  some evidence, but also contradictory
• more than one explanation needed

  research into trans females found diff types of gd

  • homosexual vs non
  • Furuhashini - study of 27 m w gd - 2 types - longing to be female since child (core group), discomfort appeared in adolescence (periphery group)

  diff explanations likely for diff types
• socially sensitive research

  social consequences

  • if bio cause identified - may make others more accepting
  • BUT may be wrongly assumed that all born w bio will inevitably be trans

  so research may have positive or negative effects