error due

• Experimenters can unintentionally influence participant performance by providing cues, feedback, or expectations that affect their behavior.
• The experimenter effect is when the presence or behavior of an experimenter affects participants' responses.
• To minimize the experimenter effect, researchers use double-blind procedures where neither the researcher nor the participant knows which condition they are in.
• The experimenter effect is when the presence of an observer affects participants' responses.
• Reactivity


  When evaluated, the behavior increases
• Hawthorne Effect


  Reactivity - when evaluated, the behavior increases
• Drift


  Moving away from what one has learned, going to idiosyncratic definitions of behavior
• Subjects should be retrained


  At a point of time
• Contrast Effect


  Cognitive bias that distorts our perception of something when we compare it to something else, by enhancing the differences between them
• Expectancies


  Tendency for results to be influenced by what test administrators expect to find
• Rosenthal/Pygmalion Effect


  Test administrator's expected results influences the result of the test
• Golem Effect


  Negative expectations decreases one's performance
• Rating Errors


  • Leniency Error (Generosity Error)
  • Severity Error
  • Central Tendency Error
  • Halo Effect
  • Horn Effect
• Leniency Error


  Rater is lenient in scoring
• Severity Error


  Rater is strict in scoring
• Central Tendency Error


  Rater's rating would tend to cluster in the middle of the rating scale
• Halo Effect


  Tendency to give high score due to failure to discriminate among conceptually distinct and potentially independent aspects of a ratee's behavior, snap judgement on the basis of positive trait
• Horn Effect


  Opposite of Halo Effect
• One way to overcome rating errors is to use rankings
• Fundamental Attribution Error


  Tendency to explain someone's behavior based on internal factors such as personality or disposition, and to underestimate the influence the external factors have on another person's behavior, blaming it on the situation
• Barnum Effect


  People tend to accept vague personality descriptions as accurate descriptions of themselves (Aunt Fanny Effect)
• Bias


  Factor inherent in a test that systematically prevents accurate, impartial measurement, such as prejudice or preferential treatment
• Prevention of bias during test development

  Through a procedure called Estimated True Score Transformation
• Researchers must be aware of potential biases and take steps to minimize them during data collection.
• Researchers must be aware of potential biases and take steps to minimize them.
• Participants may alter their behavior to please the researcher or conform to social norms.
• Participants may alter their behavior to conform with social norms or please the experimenter.
• One way to reduce the impact of the experimenter effect is through blinding, where researchers are not informed about which condition a participant received until data analysis.
• Researchers can reduce demand characteristics by using deception, manipulating situational variables, and controlling information provided to participants.
• Participants may alter their behavior to please the experimenter or conform to social norms.
• Demand characteristics occur when participants infer what the purpose of the study is based on situational cues.
• Researchers can reduce the experimenter effect by using standardized instructions and avoiding unnecessary interaction with participants.
• Social desirability bias occurs when participants respond in a way that presents themselves in a positive light rather than accurately reflecting their true beliefs or attitudes.
• Social desirability response set is when participants respond in ways they believe will make them appear more favorable to others.
• Random assignment ensures that all participants are equally likely to receive any particular experimental condition.
• The researcher can reduce the impact of these sources of variance by using random sampling procedures and controlling extraneous variables.
• Demand characteristics refer to cues that lead participants to guess what the experimenter wants them to do.
• Demand characteristics refer to cues given by researchers that influence how participants behave on tests.
• Demand characteristics refer to cues that allow participants to guess what the purpose of an experiment might be.
• Controlling extraneous variables involves manipulating only one variable at a time while holding other variables constant.