Sexism

• What is alpha bias?


  Theories assume there's real & enduring differences between men & women. E.g, Freud's psychosexual development theory- viewed femininity as failed masculinity. In discussion of female development he claimed we mustn't allow ourselves to regard the 2 sexes as completely equal in position & worth (Freud, 1925).
• Josselson (1988)


  Points out classical psychoanalytic theory is grounded in the genital inferiority of women & deduces their moral inferiority as well. Deficiency of women was caused by absence of penis. Women jealous of men's penises (penis envy) & they're morally inferior, as superego develops from Oedipus complex, which women don't experience.
• What is beta bias?

  Theories tend to ignore or minimise differences between men & women. Ignore questions about lives of women, or assume insights derived from studies of men will apply equally well to women. E.g, androcentric bias
• What is androcentric bias?

  Theories & studies tend to be written or conducted by men. Favour male perspective. E.g, Kohlberg- dilemmas used were based on male perspective (justice orientation) & stage theory was based on research with males. Theory was assumed to be universally relevant. Kohlberg found females didn't reason at higher level that males did. Beta bias in theory produced evidence of a difference which may not be real- female perspective devalued (importance of care in moral judgements). Gilligan (1982)- argued women use principle of care rather than justice in moral judgements.
• Hare-Mustin & Maracek (1988):

  Applied idea of alpha & beta bias to gender as well as to culture. Outcome is that women portrayed as inferior.
• Heterosexism


  Assumption that natural kind of sexual/romantic relationship is between males & females as opposed to homosexuality. Many years mainstream social psychological research concentrated on romantic relationships among heterosexuals. Challenged by Wood & Duck (1995) in their book 'understudied relationships' where they argued psychological research only focused on small sample of human relationships, ignoring long-distance ones, online, lesbian, gay, etc.
• Socially sensitive research example:

  Research on homosexual relationships- by distinguishing hetero & homosexual relationships as different (& requiring different research), this may perpetuate stereotypes (alpha bias). Disregarding differences, 1 group may be devalued (beta bias).
• Nature or nurture?


  Further socially sensitive issue related to gender research. E.g, if region of brain identified as unique to gay men then it may help people be more excepting of homosexuality. May also be seen negatively, as then individuals may feel their behaviour is inevitable rather than matter of choice.
• How is there sexism in psychology?

  Many theories characterised by gender bias resulting from a 'male as norm' perspective. (androcentric bias). Traditional research methods biased towards males & development of feminist research methods has done much to redress balance & represent women in more accurate & favourable manner.
• Smith & Lloyd (1978):

  Observed mothers playing with infant (either presented as boy or girl). Mothers selected gender-appropriate toys (doll for girls & squeaky hammer for boys) & responded more actively when 'boy' showed increased motor activity. Shows parents differentially reinforce gender stereotypes from early age. Children also exposed to gender stereotypes in media - vicarious reinforcement. Gender is social construct.
• Mondschein et al (2000):


  Asked mums to predict how successful their babies would be at crawling task. No actual gender differences in crawling yet mothers had lower expectations for girls.
• Moss-Racusin et al (2012):


  Sent job applications out to academics. If application was from 'Jennifer' it was perceived as less competent than when labelled 'John'. Shows stereotypes bias ways we treat men & women.
• Biological research:


  Males used in research even when argued female was best to use e.g, female hormonal variations would have effect on behaviour. Taylor et al (2000) produced evidence that 'fight or flight' response is not typical response in females, who react to stress with 'tend & befriend' response. Fight or flight may not be universal- beta bias.
• Feminist psychology:


  Aims to redress imbalances in psychology. Argue there may be real biologically based sex differences but socially determined stereotypes make far greater contribution to perceived differences than biological ones. Feminists take view that a prerequisite to any social change with respect to gender roles must be a revision of our 'facts' about gender. Whether such facts true or not, they perpetuate our beliefs about women.
• Invisibility of women in psychology:

  Academic practice of using surnames means we aren't aware of researcher's gender. Authors more likely male- American psychological association published list of 100 most eminent psychologists of 20th century- named only 6 women. Gender imbalance strange, as most undergraduate psychology students female. Murphy et al (2014) argue part of problem lies with women's own implicit stereotypes about gender- women also endorse male superiority. Recommend we become more aware of our biases.
• Male-female brain


  Commonly believed male & female brains different
• Maccoby & Jacklin (1974):


  Looked at large number of gender studies & concluded girls have superior verbal ability & boys better at spatial tasks. Possible such differences due to effects of hormones on developing prenatal brain, especially testosterone (associated with increased aggressiveness).
• Joel et al (2015):

  Analysed brain scans of over 1400 men & women, finding many differences in terms of individual features, but no unique cluster of features found in men & women. Concluded no 'male' or 'female' brain.
• Spencer et al (1999)


  Girls do less well on maths test if they're reminded of 'girls less good at maths' stereotype before taking test. Easy to arouse gender-stereotyped behaviour. Stereotype threat could cause psychological differences between men & women.