Antarctica - A Global Commons

• Threats to Antarctica - Climate Change:

  • The West Side is losing significant quantities of land ice and sea ice.
  • The Antarctic Circumpolar Current is warming more rapidly than the global ocean as a whole.
  • The distribution of penguin colonies has changed as a result of warming ocean temperatures.
• Threats to Antarctica - Fishing & Whaling:

  • The 19th century saw Norwegian, British and American exploitation of blue and right whales for their bones and oil.
  • In the 20th century, they widened the practice to include meat and bonemeal, meat extract and frozen whale meat.
  • By 1985, stocks were so dangerously low that most commercial whaling stopped.
  • Fishing is following similar trends, replacing whaling as the primary economic focus.
• Threats to Antarctica - Search for Minerals:

  • Mining is banned until 2048.
  • No plans to mine for reserves at present.
  • Demand could change in the future.
  • Finite resources might run out elsewhere.
  • Population increase and higher demand from technological developments increase the rate at which finite resources run out.
• Threats to Antarctica - Tourism & Scientific Research:

  • The summer tourism season in the southern hemisphere is from mid-November to March.
  • Footprints can create scars or paths.
  • Most people get there by small boats of 50-200 people.
  • Some small areas for small planes to land.
  • Overflying by these small planes can cause stress to breeding colonies of penguins and birds.
• Threats to Antarctica - Tourism & Scientific Research (Scientists):

  • Impacts by scientists are caused by vehicle exhausts, construction of buildings and related facilities such as fuel storage, runways and the disposal of waste such as rope, fuel and drums and plastics, all of which endanger living organisms.
• Physical Geography:

  • The Majority of Antarctica is south of the Arctic Circle.
  • 97% of the continent is covered by ice
  • It’s much colder inland with more extensive temperature ranges.
• Physical Geography - Climate:

  • It is much cooler between April and September.
  • Average temperature of -50ºC
  • Less than 50mm of annual precipitation, primarily snow
  • Average annual wind speed of 50mph due to convergent katabatic winds - gales reaching up to 200mph
• Physical Geography - Antarctic Circumpolar Current:

  • It is the world’s largest and strongest ocean current
  • The only ocean current that flows completely around the globe.
  • Bring deep nutrient-rich waters to the surface
  • Fertilise surface waters
  • Encourages the growth of phytoplankton
  • The base of the food chain
  • It circles Antarctica in a clockwise direction
  • It is driven by prevailing westerly winds
• Physical Geography - Antarctic Circumpolar Current:

  • Up to 120 miles wide and 4km deep.
  • Carries 100x the water of all the world’s rivers.
  • An estimated 165 million to 182 million cubic metres of water a second.
  • It forms a natural boundary between the warm waters of the Indian/Pacific/Atlantic oceans and the cold waters of Antarctica.
  • Keeps Antarctica frozen
  • It is being affected by a warming climate
  • It is warming faster than the rest of the global oceans.
• Antarctic Food Web

  
• Developing Governance in Antarctica- International Whaling Commission:

  • The global body that is responsible for the conservation of whales and the management of whaling.
  • Established in 1946.
• Main Duties of the IWC:

  • Keep under review the measures lead down by the Whaling COnvention.
  • Complete protection of certain whale species.
  • Designate specified areas as whale sanctuaries.
  • Establishing limits on the numbers and size of whales taken.
  • Prohibition of capture of suckling calves and female whales accompanied by calves.
  • Compilation of catch reports and other statistical and biological records.
• Commercial Whaling Moratorium - IWC:

  • In 1982, the IWC paused commercial whaling on all stocks from the 1985/1986 season onwards.
  • This pause is often referred to as the Commercial Whaling Moratorium.
  • Japan continued to evade this by 'special permit' allowing them to exploit a loophole in the IWC that permits whaling for 'scientific research' in the Southern Ocean.
• Developing Governance in Antarctica - United Nations Environment Programme:

  • Responsible for coordinating responses to environmental issues within the UN system.
  • Concerns about increased Krill catches in the Southern Ocean, having an impact on other marine life led to the adoption of the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR).
  • Its aim is to conserve living resources in Antarctica.
  • 26 member states and 10 acceding states.
• UNEP - Achievements and Challenges:

  • IN 2009 the world's first Marine Protected Area was established in the Southern Ocean, and another was established in the Ross Sea in 2016.
  • Within the MPA there is a 'no take zone' with no harvesting, and covers 72% of the total area.
  • Reduced seabird mortality, almost zero sea birds are now killed as a result of fishing operations through implementations such as seasonal closures.
  • Illegal, unreported and Unregulated fishing has declined, although the level of it is uncertain as it is difficult to monitor.
• Developing Governance in Antarctica - The Antarctic Treaty:

  • Set up in 1959
  • Signed by 12 countries to guarantee free access and research.
  • 14 articles.
  • Used exclusively for peaceful purposes.
  • No nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive waste.
  • Inspection of ships, stations and equipment.
  • Recognised as one of the most successful international agreements of all time.
• Developing Governance in Antarctica - The Wider ATS system:

  • The system includes the Antarctic Treaty at its core together with a number of related agreements:
  • The protocol on environmental protection to the Antarctic Treaty.
  • Two separate conventions dealing with the Conservation of Antarctic Seals.
  • The Conservation of Marine Living Resources.
• Developing Governance in Antarctica - The Madrid Protocol:

  • Negotiated by the UN and treaty members at an Antarctic Treaty conference in 1995.
  • Gives extra protection to the environment of Antarctica.
  • Designates the area covered as a 'Natural Reserve for peace and science' until 2048.
• The Role of NGOs - Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC):

  • 30 different NGOs joined under one umbrella group to form a coalition to have more influence with governments globally.
  • Comprised a number of well-known environmental groups; Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace, and the Worldwide Fund for Nature.
  • Formed in response to the concern that members of the Antarctic Treaty were meeting to negotiate a framework for mineral and gas exploitation in Antarctica.
  • A precautionary ecosystem approach was embedded into the Antarctic Treaty, First Major Win.
• The Role of NGOs - ASCO Campaign Focus:

  • Negotiating a legally binding campaign focus, covers all vessel in the Southern Ocean.
  • Establishing marine reserves, including Marine Protected Area in the Ross Sea.
  • Managing Southern Ocean Fisheries.
  • Regulating Antarctic tourism and biological prospecting.
  • Mitigating impacts of climate change.
• The Role of NGOs - Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR):

  • Monitors the resilience and adaptation to disturbances and the effect of any mitigation measures put into place.
• The Role of NGOs - International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators:

  • Aims to ensure that measures are in place to minimise the impacts and maintain a sustainable tourism operation.
  • Forbids large ships of more than 500 passengers from visiting.
  • Ensures landing groups are divided into boatloads of around 20 people, each led by a qualified guide.
  • Briefs tourists on a code of behaviour when ashore.
  • Limits on visiting sites and each site may only be visited every 3 to 4 days