EVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATIONS

• SEXUAL JEALOUSY 


  which is a direct response to parental uncertainty, where men cannot be sure the child is theirs as fertility is hidden in the womb. This leads to a risk of cuckoldry, where costs include waste of resources on the child of another man, and a waste of reproductive chances. Sexual jealousy and subsequent aggression is adaptive to men as it deters cuckoldry risk. 
• MATE RETENTION STRATEGIES


  Buss suggests males have evolved strategies to help keep a mate through direct guarding and negative inducements.

  • Direct guarding = involves vigilance over a partner’s behaviour for example they are monitoring the partner’s behaviour.
  • Negative inducements = include issuing threats, insults etc. in order to deter their partner from cheating. 
• (+) SEXUAL JEALOUSY


  SADALLA ET AL =

  suggest that women are attracted to dominant behaviour from men, supporting the idea that aggression in men can increase their chance of reproductive success. This behaviour would have enhanced their attractiveness but not particularly how much they were liked. It is possible that this shows that mate preference is based on survival rather than happiness. 
• (+) EVOLUTIONARY 


  can explain why males and females differ in their use of aggression. ANNE CAMPBELL argues that it is not adaptive for a female with offspring to be physically aggressive due to their own survival risk and that of her child. However, they are more likely to use verbal aggression as a means of retaining a partner and avoid becoming involved in life threatening situations. This suggests that women have adapted to display verbal rather than physical aggression and therefore provides further support for the evolutionary approach. 
• (-) EVOLUTIONARY 


  it ignores nurture. For example, the Mennonites and Amish communities in the USA that are pacifist (peace loving). These communities believe that aggression is wrong and it is therefore not commonplace. This is a belief system, so if aggression was innate it would be likely to override the environmentally determined behaviour. As it does not, such communities provide strong evidence that aggression is not learned. 
• BULLYING 


  stronger individual against weaker.

  To men it suggests dominance and acquisition of resources. ideal characteristics to access more females and minimal threat from competing males. = reproductive access / survival
• (-) EVOLUTIONARY


  CULTURAL DIFFERENCES =

  Aggression is not universal e.g kung san people of Africa have very -ve attitudes towards the use of agg. it is discouraged from from childhood in boys and girls and is rare because it is linked to loss of status within the community (THOMAS 1958). = Since some cultures do not show aggressiveness, such beh. may not necessarily be adaptive