gender

• sex and gender


  sex - biological differences of males and females including chromosomes, hormones and anatomy - XX females, XY males

  gender - the psychological, social and cultural differences between men and women including attitudes, bvrs and social roles, differences in masculine and feminine traits

  gender identity - an individuals own perceptions of themselves as masculine/feminine
• sex role stereotypes and androgyny


  sex role stereotypes are a shared set of expectations that people within a society or vultures hold about what is acceptable for usual bvrs of men and women - these expectations are reinforced by society (SLT)

  androgyny - displaying a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics in ones personality
• Bems sex role inventory - 1974


  • measure of androgyny - questionnaire with a 7-point scale of 60 characteristics, 20 masc, 20 fem and 20 neutral e.g reliable
  • argued androgyny is more psychologically healthy with higher self-esteem and better relationships
• sex and gender AO3 - androgyny and well-being


  • Bem placed great emphasis on the idea of androgyny being more healthy as placed to deal with the demands of all situations and make appropriate responses
  • assumption has been challenged - Adams and Sheer 1985 - found masculine traits such as assertiveness and self-efficacy better adapted to individualistic cultures
• sex and gender further AO3

  • Bem valid and reliable way of measuring androgyny - before creating the scale asked 50M and 50F of traits of maleness and femaleness - became traits of the scale- later piloted on 1000 students - results corresponded to student's own description of their gender and had good test-retest reliability a month latet
  • H/ criteria is 40 years old - definitions of masc/fem traits have changed - low temporal validity
  • oversimplification - BSRI score, bvr often changes with context, quantitative approach may not be most appropriate - qualitative may be better
• role of chromosomes and hormones in gender - chromosomes

  • 46 chromosomes - 23 pairs code for genetic info
  • females XX males XY
  • the Y chromosome carries the sex determining region y gene (SRY). the SRY gene causes testes to develop in XY embryo - produces male androgen
  • XX ovaries develop as no SRY gene
• role of chromosomes and hormones in gender - hormones

  • testosterone - male androgen, controls the development of male sex organs during foetal development
  • Green - without testosterone a 'female brain' develops as testosterone acts on the hypothalamus - associated w/ aggression
  • initiates secondary sexual characteristics
  • oestrogen - female hormone determining menstruation - dev of secondary sexual characteristics, associated w/ socialising etc
  • oxytocin - higher in females h/ same in both genders during sex, stimulates lactation and lowers cortisol levels important in forming bond pair
• role of chromosomes and hormones AO3

  • Application - alleged male athletes competing with females to win/ intersex competing w/ women - controversial opinions - originally mandated for SRY gene testing for female Olympians now comprehensive reports of gynaecologists, psychologists endocrinologists to verify
  • reductionist - ignores the influence of envt and social learning/ schema theory
  • r. support for testosterone - Wang et al - male hypogonadism when testes don't produce testosterone - testosterone replacement in 180 patients - found better mood and libido and muscle strength
• atypical sex chromosome patterns AO1

  • Kleinfelters syndrome XXY - 1 in 600 males, reduced body hair, rounding of contours, small testes, tall, long limbs, breast tissue developments, poorly developed language skills - dyslexia, shy, passive lack of interest in sexual activity
  • Turners syndrome XO - no second X chromosome in 1 in 5000 females, no menstrual cycle, infertile, ovaries do not develop, limited breast development, short, webbed neck, low set ears, immature appearance, higher than average reading ability, low performance on visual/spatial tasks, socially immature
• atypical sex chromosome patterns AO3

  • application in improving lives - kleinfelters testosterone therapy helps develop facial hair, sperm from testes still reduced so can father with IVF, Turners - oestrogen injections increase height and breast development regular checks leads to a normal healthy life
  • nature/nurture debate - allows comparison of gender-typical implying differences due to biological bases - nature, h/ observations such as socially immature may be due to envt treating that way based on physical appearance
  • knowing/ not knowing - ethics
• cognitive explanations - kohlbergs theory

  • stage 1 - gender identity, 2-3 years child recognises own gender and can label others based on outer appearances yet doesn't recognise gender fixed across time and situation
  • stage 2 - gender stability, 4-5 years, understands own gender fixed across time and situation, yet still judges others on appearance and doesn't recognise gender permanence of others - egocentric
  • stage 3 - gender constancy, around 5, mow understands the idea of gender permanence and becomes less egocentric - decentres

  then identify and seek out same gendered role models
• Kohlberg AO3


  • Slaby and Frey - asked children 2-5.5 years were you a little boy or little girl when baby, younger children did not recognise stability over time, older children high in gender constancy also showed interest in same sex models
  • approach - Munroe cross cultural evidence suggests Kohlbergs stages universal in line w/ bio approach
  • methodology criticised - Bem argued genital knowledge of higher importance than constancy - 40% 3-5 years olds could conserve gender of a naked photo, 77% who failed clothed also failed gender test - suggests way of measuring gender constancy flawed
• cognitive explanations - gender schema theory

  Martin and Halverson - mental representation of what sex is and what is stereotypically male and female bvrs - informs own bvr

  • one child has established their own gender identity around 2-3yrs will search from envt info that encourages dev of a gender schema - young children's schemas form around stereotypes which provide a framework that directs experiences and understanding of themselves, by 6 is fixed and children tend to have a better understanding of own gender - ingroup as pay more attention and bolsters self esteem
• gender schema theory AO3

  • r. support martin and halverson - children under 6 are more likely to remember photos of stereotyped gender appropriate bvrs than gender inappropriate - tended to change gender on recall to be gender appropriate
  • Marlin and Little - tested 3-5yo for gender identity, stability and constancy as well as clothing and stereotypes and toy preferences - found children require only gender identity for preferences to be influenced - suggests gender app bvr can be adopted earlier that kohlberg suggested due to substantial ingroup schema
  • can account for cultural differences
• psychodynamic explanation of gender development

  • Oedipus complex - boys dev incestuous feelings towards mother, harbour hatred for father who stands in way, h/ father more powerful and castration anxiety results in conflict resolving by identifying w/ father and dev of masc bvr
  • Electra complex - proposed by Jung, girls feel competition of mother, penis envy believe were castrated so double hatred, overtime accept no penis and replace with desire to have baby and identify with mother

  both sexed eventually adopt respective attitudes internalising bvr to take on gender identity
• psychodynamic explanation AO3


  • Little Hans case study - not generalisable
  • gender bias - focuses on males, Jung developed electra complex later yet Freud believed females have weak gender identity due to no castration anxiety so no need to identify as much h/ horney argued males experience womb envy and that Freud's theory is androcentric
  • belief non nuclear families results in adverse effect on gender dev disputed - Green found not case as those without heterosexual parents developed in much the same way - undermines theory and low predictive validity
  • pseudoscientific - unfalsiafiable
• SLT as applied to gender development

  combination of cognitive and behaviourist ideas - gender info from social influences as well as learnt from observational learning from social agents who model and reinforce gender roles

  • children see others rewarded for gender appropriate bvr - vicarious reinforcement and when role models same sex are more likely to identify with and imitate
  • way in which girls and boys are encouraged to show gender appropriate bvr is known as differential reinforcement
  • mediational processes of attention, retention, reproduction and motivation are involved
• SLT and gender AO3

  • r. support - smith and lloyd - 32 mothers, 6 month old baby and selection of toys, when dressed as girl mothers picked dolls, when dressed as boy mothers picked hammer and encouraged more physical play - differential reinforcement
  • can explain cultural changes, shift since 1950s gender roles changed can be explained by SLT as though biologically same shift in definitions of masc/fem traits leads to different learning taking place
• influence of culture on gender roles

  Mead - 3 tribes, Arapesh men and women both feminine and gentle

  Tchambuli - gender roles reversed, females dominant, men in child-rearing

  Mundagamor tribe - both genders are aggressive and little interest in child-rearing

  AO3 - culural relatism - all 3 tribes men are more aggressive than women so some bvrs innate

  • participant bias, imposed etic, nature nurture debate

  Alt - Fafafine - samoa - characteristics of both gender stereotypical female bvrs may be labelled as gay in uk - shows diff in gender role between cultures
• cultural roles AO3 - Buss


  males and females marriage partner preference assessed in 10000 people across 37 countries, women chose higher financial status and security whilst men valued physical appearance more

  common to all cultures - argues nature - some gender roles and preferences may be innate

  • deterministic
• influence of media on gender

  rigid stereotypes from media reinforce gender stereotyped bvr

  Furnham and Faragher found men are more likely to be seen in power positions in adverts and women in familial roles - reinforcing stereotypes

  self-efficacy - seeing others perform gender appropriate roles increases child's belief that that is what they are capable of in the future
• media and culture AO3

  • r. support Williams Notel community, Unitel and multitel - found notel and unitel had weaker gender identity however as exposure increased became more sex typed
  • counter stereotyping - challenge stereotypes, show more ads with non-steretypical roles - real world application, uk banned such adverts as may restrict aspirations
  • correlation does not equal causation, hard to establish cause and effect as there is no control group with no media exposure in this day and age
• gender dysphoria


  persons experience of discomfort or distress due to a mismatch between sex assigned at birth and gender identity
• atypical gender development - biological


  • Brain sex theory, gender dysphoria caused by brain structure incompatible with bio sex - Zhou, BSTc in males larger, postmortem of trans found similar size to females
  • hormonal - unusual levels of androgen exposure in the womb influence dev of the foetus
  • genetic - variation in genes responsible for androgen reception - heylens twin study 39% concordance MZ for gender dysphoria 0 DZ
• atypical gender development - social-psychological


  • social constructivists - believe gender is a social construct, New Guinea used to accept some are male, some female and some are FtM, now with contact with cultures judge these individuals
  • psychodynamic approach - not successfully resolved oedipus/electra complex so don't identify and internalise gender identity
  • behaviourists - if rewards for cross gendered bvr that bvr becomes more likely
• atypical gender development - biological AO3

  • contradictory evidence - Pol 2006, Ps in Zhous study had all received hormone treatment which may account for difference in size
  • if strictly genetic concordance rate in twin studies should be 100%
  • r support - Rametti MRI before treatment, distribution of white matter corresponded w/ identified gender not sex
• atypical gender development - social psychological AO3

  • not all cultures have a binary idea of gender - Fafafine
  • psychodynamic only focuses on males to females, Reiker suggested gender dysphoria is more likely associated with the absence of a father - not comprehensive
• atypical gender development overall AO3

  • socially sensitive research - removes responsibility from individual h/ classification as a mental disorder may have own implications
  • reductionist
  • nature/nurture debate - interactionist approach more likely