7. Pressure Groups

• Pluralism in the USA

  • the representation and participation by numerous and competing groups, organised around class, racial, ethnic and cultural interests
  • range of groups result for First Amendment freedoms
  • Pressure groups do not seek elected office but to influence, face opposition from other groups with different aims
  • Critics argue that there is not a level playing field as certain groups are more likely to be influential
• Types of Pressure groups

  Outsider:

  • smaller, less well funded, less connected
  • aims are often anti-establishment, seeking radical change
  • may use direct action such as marches, sit-ins or even violence to gain publicity e.g. BLM 2020
• Types of Pressure Groups

  Insider:

  • well funded, strong links to political establishment and both main parties
  • Use lower-profile methods to achieve their aims, such as hiring professional lobbyists to put their case to politicians and federal agencies
  • Raise considerable sums via PACs to spend on election campaigns to support or oppose candidates.
  • Some may raise money for just one party, or split money equally
• Types of Pressure Groups

  Causal (Promotional) Groups:

  • altruistic aims: seeking policy outcomes that are morally right
  • issues include animal rights (PETA) or the environment (Leage of Conservation Voters)
• Types of Pressure Groups

  Sectional (interest) Groups:

  • seek to defend the interests of their members
  • AARP uphold the rights of retired Americans
  • Labour unions such as AFL-CIO fall into this category, and employers organisations such as US Chamber of Commerce
• Types of Pressure Groups

  Hybrid:

  • The NRA both seeks to defend the cause of the right to bear arms (second amendment) and represent the interest of gun owners
• Pressure Group Methods

  Candidate endorsement:

  • many focus on securing candidates favourable to their positions
  • make donations via their PACs and Super PACs
  • EMILY's List raised and donated over $45 million for the 2020 election cycle
  • often directly endorse candidates e.g. Federation of Teachers backed Biden in 2020
  • Some issue 'score cards' to members to show candidates voting records
• Pressure Group Methods


  Lobbying Legislatures and agencies:

  • Most effective, but low profile methods
  • large groups have offices in capitals ready to supply specialist information to legislators and bureaucrats
  • some groups use professional firms - 'K Street'
  • Many lobbyists are former members of Congress or bureaucrats, a practice known as revolving door syndrome
  • Lobbying agencies can be effective, as they draw up details of regulation after a law is passed. Bankers met with agencies in 2010 and 2012 to alter the passed 2010 Act to tighten regulations
• Access Points 


  Different levels and institutions of government and decision making that pressure groups will target and lobby to gain influence
• K Street 


  The street in DC where big lobbying firms are based
• Revolving Door Syndrome 


  When former legislators or bureaucrats go from legislature/executive to lucrative jobs as lobbyists.

  • 59% of former members of 2017-19 Congress went to work as lobbyists
• Lobbying the Supreme Court

  • Pressure groups present Amicus curiae briefs for Supreme Court cases, contain detailed evidence and research to influence justices
  • Use of Amicus Curiae briefs has grown considerably in recent years. 2015 Obergefell vs Hodges case saw a record of 148 briefs only 6 were submitted for Brown v Board
  • Pressure groups lobby the senate during the nomination to Supreme Court e.g. civil rights groups against Robert Bork
• Amicus curiae brief


  Latin term meaning 'friend of the court' brief. A written argument submitted to a court by a person or group that has an interest in the case.

  • Pressure groups try to use briefs to influence the court and employ expert lawyers to write them
• Direct Action


  most commonly used by new and/or outsider groups to gain publicity and media attention:

  • often takes the form of mass demonstrations but can include strikes or sit-ins
  • A major tactic of the civil rights movement in the 1950s and of MLK e.g. March on Washington
  • Some direct action can result in riots and can become associated with violence - attack on US Capitol is less common example of direct action in by right wing groups
  • regarded as less effective than lobbying due to negative attitudes and waning public interest
• Direct Action


  Boycotts:

  • some civil rights campaigners use them, for example Montgomery Bus boycott and 2023-34 Israeli boycott
  • Increasingly: economic pressure is used by businesses and even celebrities to put pressure on law-makers
  • After Parkland shooting, Was-Mart raised the minimum age for purchasing firearms and ammunition to 21
  • In 2021, the publishers Simon and Schuster dropped Republican Senator Hawley's book contract over his role in trying to overturn 202 election result
• Factors Affecting Success

  • resources
  • status
  • strength of groups with opposing objectives
  • political climate
  • public mood
  • links with legislators
  • ability to organise
  • endorsements from politicians and celebrities
• Election funding:

  heavily involved in election campaigns, especially in raising money to favoured candidates

  • Many follow predictable party patterns. unions and pro-choice groups overwhelmingly backing Democrat Candidates
  • a disproportionate amount of funding goes to incumbents as many groups wish to back winner so as to have influence
  • Pressure Groups support does not always guarantee victory
• Election funding

  • PACs and Super PACs are the principal legal means by which pressure groups raise and donate funds for election campaigns
  • A PAC is a political action committee that raises and spends 'hard' money contributions for the specific purpose of electing or defeating candidates. There are legal limits to the donations of PACs, can give up to 5,000 to a candidate per election cycle. Donations must be formally made public and PAC must be registered. Many Pressure groups have a PAC. NRA is the political Victory Fund, spent under $20 million in the 2020 election races
• Election Funding 


  Super PACs

  emerged after the 2010 citizens United case which granted first amendment rights of political expression to corporations and pressure groups.

  • means they can effectively raise and spend unlimited amounts on election campaigning, provided the expenditure is independent and uncoordinated with official parties.
  • raise and spend 'soft' money
  • Their growth has significantly increased the amount of political donations. Most leading candidates have Super PACs supporting their campaigns e.g. Joe Biden's main Super PAC was Priorities USA Action
• Do Super PACs play too big of a role in US elections?

  YES:

  • increasingly significant in fundraising for elections and are a vital method of getting round finance limits
  • The vast amounts raised and spent by PACs/Super PACs favour well connected candidates
  • Rich donors wield too much power and influence over elections
  • legislators are in the pockets of the powerful and wealthy
  • PACs and Super PACs undermine the role of political parties
• Do Super PACs play too big of a role in US elections?


  NO:

  • Rich candidates can partly self fund anyway
  • Blame should rest on Supreme Court decisions for the growth of Super PACs
  • Superior funding does not always guarantee victory
  • right to make donations is a political right
  • Members of Congress cannot be bought and are held to account by voters
  • Party allegiance remains strong, most groups align with a party anyway
• Iron Triangles

  • coined by Eisenhower, referred to the dangers of the military industrial context, with ties between bureaucrats, Washington politicians and defence industry.
  • majort pharmaceutical companies often have close ties with the Food and drug administration, while also donating to legislators who sit on the relevant committees
  • Iron Triangles are seen as working against the public interest and instead favouring powerful corporate interests
• Are pressure groups too powerful?

  YES:

  • Potential for corruption and influence of revolving door lobbyists
  • Legislators are afraid of upsetting key pressure groups e.g. NRA
  • Advice from pressure groups is one sided - can harm public (Iron Triangle)
  • Undermines political parties
  • Not all groups and interests are equally powerful and well organised e.g. drug companies vs patient groups
  • Can lead to bought influence by best funded groups
• Are pressure groups too powerful?

  NO:

  • Lobbyists are regulated to an extent
  • Represent and reflect the vast array of groups, beliefs and causes
  • Provide legislators with useful information
  • Parties in the USA are already weak, pressure groups shape parties
  • Can increase levels of scrutiny of both congress and the executive