Issues and debates textbook

• Universality


  Any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing.
• Gender bias


  Psychological theory or research that offers a view that does not justifiably represent the experience or behaviour of men or women
• Alpha gender bias


  Exaggerates differences between the sexes

  e.g. Freuds psychosexual stages in boys and girls
• Beta gender bias


  Minimises differences between the sexes

  e.g. Kohlberg's gender development theory
• Androcentrism


  Normal behaviour is judged from the male standard
• Implications of gender bias

  May validate stereotypes and discrimination
• Sexism within the research process

  Research questions oriented to male concerns

  Preference for results showing gender differences

  Lab experiments disadvantage women
• Reflexivity


  Being 'up-front' about one's biases and preconceptions can reduce gender bias
• Essentialism


  Gender differences presented as 'fixed' in nature, often politically motivated
• Feminist psychology


  Worrell proposes that research should be collaborative and in context
• Ethnocentrism


  When one's own culture is seen as the norm or standard

  e.g. Ainsworth's strange situation
• Cultural relativism


  The idea that norms and values can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts
• Etic approach


  Looks at behaviour from outside a given culture and attempts to describe those behaviours that are universal
• Emic approach


  Functions from within or inside certain cultures and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture
• Individualism/collectivism


  Individualist culture is associated with Western countries who are thought to value independence and personal freedom.

  Collectivist cultures such as India or China are said to place more emphasis on interdependence and the needs of the group

  However, this definition may be too simple because of global communication
• Cultural relativism versus universality


  It should not be assumed that all human behaviours are culturally specific, there are some universals, such as facial expression of emotion
• Unfamiliarity with research tradition

  Demand characteristics are more likely in an unfamiliar situation for cultures that do not have the same historical experience fo research
• Operationalisation of variables


  Some behaviours may not be expressed in the same way
• Challenging implicit assumptions 


  Researcher's own cultural views may be challenged. Taken for granted assumptions may not be universal
• Free will and determinism

  Free will - The notions that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external factors

  Determinism - The view that an individuals behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces rather than an individuals will to do something