gender psychology

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• Sex


  The biological, anatomical and genetic differences between males and females from conception due to inheriting chromosomes XY or XX
• Gender


  The psychological, behavioral distinction between masculine and feminine personality traits, may not match biological sex
• Sexual stereotype


  A culturally shared set of expectations of correct male and female behavior, learnt by socialization
• Androgyny


  Having a balanced mixture of both masculine (e.g. competitive) and feminine (e.g. caring) personality traits
• Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)


  A measure of androgyny where participants rate themselves on a seven point scale on 60 characteristics or traits, scored on two dimensions: masculinity and femininity
• BSRI traits


  • 20 masculine including aggressive, independent, and risk-taking
  • 20 feminine including warm, cheerful, and shy
  • 20 neutral including reliable and adaptable
• Bem's argument


  Androgynous people with a high balance of masculine and feminine traits are more psychologically healthy than other types
• Bem's research using the BSRI showed gender-matched sex in most males and females, but 24% of males and 27% of females were androgynous
• The BSRI has shown high test-retest reliability and has been used successfully in a number of gender studies
• The undifferentiated type was added by Bem in 1981 to identify people with few masculine or feminine traits
• Awareness of gender identity as separate from sex and androgyny may reduce gender stereotyping
• Zamsherer in 1985 found masculine males and females were better adapted in measures of assertiveness and self-efficacy
• The BSRI score oversimplifies gender identity, as gender expression often adapts depending on context such as work role or social groups
• The BSRI lacks temporal validity due to social changes, for example including traits like 'childlike' and 'gullible'
• Smith and Lloyd in 1987 found adults playing with babies dressed as the opposite sex gave toys according to sex role stereotypes
• Mead in 1935 found examples of feminine males and masculine females in sexual stereotypes in tribal communities in New Guinea
• Chromosomes


  The 23rd chromosome pair determines biological sex, with XX being female and XY being male
• Testes


  Develop due to an area on the Y chromosome called the sex-determining region, producing androgens (male sex hormones) resulting in other sex differences
• Hormones


  Influence biological development, brain, and anatomy before birth and at puberty, influencing gender identity and gendered behavior
• Testosterone


  Found in much higher concentration in males, starts development of male genitals before birth, leads to changes in the hypothalamus and other brain changes, linked to aggressive male behavior
• Estrogen


  Found in much higher concentrations in females, produces female secondary sexual characteristics and regulates menstruation, linked to irritability and caring behavior
• Oxytocin


  A stress reducing 'love hormone' produced during sex by both males and females, promotes pair bonding, also produced in high levels in females during breastfeeding to help bonding with newborn babies
• Van Bechtevel found 70% of the variance in gender identity between 8,000 monozygotic and dizygotic twin pairs was linked to genetics
• Feisting looked at 13 transgender genetic sequences, revealing 21 gene variations linked to pre-birth estrogen reception
• Feisting's research on female mice who stopped producing oxytocin due to a drug temporarily stopped maternal behaviors
• Wagner castrated male mice which reduced aggressive behavior, but when injected with testosterone the aggression returned
• Animal studies are often used to have high experimental control and avoid ethical issues, but are limited in application to humans
• It is simplistic to see sex hormones as either 'male' or 'female', as estrogen for example is used in male sex therapy to boost libido
• Klinefelter's syndrome


  XYY chromosomal pattern affecting 1 in 660 biological males, resulting in physical characteristics like lacking facial hair, being tall with long limbs, small testes, and development of breast tissue, as well as psychological effects like cognitive difficulties and being passive but having aggressive outbursts
• Turner syndrome


  X0 chromosomal pattern affecting 1 in 2,000 biological females, resulting in physical characteristics like no menstrual cycle, being sterile, having short stature, a wide chest, short webbed neck, and an immature appearance, as well as psychological characteristics like a high level of verbal skill but low visual ability and being socially mature
• Research on people with Klinefelter's syndrome and Turner syndrome has led to hormone therapies that treat some of the physical and psychological symptoms, but using this research to make assumptions about typical development is problematic as these people are statistically rare and may have had unusual personal experiences
• Kohlberg's theory of cognitive gender development

  Suggests children's understanding of gender actively develops due to intellectual development and experience, going through stages of gender identity, gender stability, and gender consistency
• Salby and Frey showed children in the consistency stage watch the same sex role model in a video more than the opposite sex