Psychopathology

• Social Norms (definition and 2 types)

  Standards of behaviour accepted within society

  Implicit norms and explicit laws
• Implicit norms


  Unspoken rules eg holding the door for someone, queueing
• 4 definitions of abnormality

  Deviation from social norms

  Failure to function adequately

  Deviation from ideal mental health

  Statistical infrequency
• Deviation from social norms as method of defining abnormality

  Practical applications - quick and easy to use, good at identifying psychopathy (antisocial personality disorder)

  Changing society - social norms are subject to change eg homosexuality decriminalised

  Cultural bias - eg Sharmans

  Exceptions to the rule - eccentric people eg punks are not abnormal
• Sharmans


  Native Americans with power obtained from spirits to cure illness

  Don't adhere to Western social norms but not abnormal
• How can 'failure to function adequately' be defined?

  By the WHO's Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF)
• GAF


  Scale of 1-100 created by WHO to measure how adequately an individual is functioning, with criteria including danger to themself or others, ability to communicate, ability to maintain personal hygiene etc.
• What does GAF stand for?

  Global Assessment of Functioning
• Who created the GAF?

  WHO created the GAF.
• GAF Evaluation


  Accounts for input of others eg with 'distress to family'

  Cultural bias - Venezuela rude to arrive on time, Western cultures rude to be late

  People who behave abnormally can function adequately - Harold Shipman

  Lacks inter-reliability - subject to interpretation

  Exceptions to rule eg students in exam time
• Jahoda's Criteria are a list of 6 ideal, mentally healthy characteristics used to identify deviation from ideal mental health
• Jahoda's Criteria:

  1. Positive attitude towards oneself (self-esteem, congruence)
  2. Self-Actualisation
  3. Autonomy (independence, decisiveness)
  4. Resisting stress (regulating emotions, coping)
  5. Accurate perception of reality (no hallucinations or delusions)
  6. Environmental mastery (flexibility in views and plans)

  Mnemonic: EAR SAP
• Jahoda's Criteria Evaluation


  Holistic, positive view providing rounded view of individual

  Lack of clearly defined cut off points - subjective

  Exceptions to the rule eg. autonomy for disabled people, resisting stress in exams, perception of reality for religions

  Cultural biases eg self-actualisation in collectivist cultures
• Use of normal distribution curve to define abnormality


  Top and bottom 5% (2 standard deviations from mean) are abnormal

  eg. high or low IQ is intellectual disability disorder
• Statistical Infrequency to define abnormality Evaluation

  Based on real data with real applications eg BDI (Beck Depression Inventory) only 5% population get 30+ 'severe depression' score

  Labelling abnormal people isn't necessarily beneficial eg negative stigma surrounding intellectual disability disorder

  Not all statistically rare behaviours are undesirable eg high IQ

  Culturally biased - more black and Asian people diagnosed with schizophrenia than white people due to racist assumptions
• 2 types of depression

  Unipolar (no mania)

  Bipolar (manic)
• Cognitive characteristics of depression


  Dwelling on the negative

  Poor concentration

  Absolutist thinking
• Emotional characteristics of depression

  Anger

  Lowered mood

  Lowered self-esteem
• Behavioural characteristics of depression

  Abnormally high/low activity levels (psycho-motor agitation)

  Insomnia/hypersomnia

  Self-harm and aggression
• Obsessions in OCD


  Forbidden/inappropriate ideas not based on reality leading to anxiety

  eg. contamination, harm, perfectionism
• Compulsions in OCD


  Intense and uncomfortable urges to perform repetitive behaviours/tasks

  eg. counting, cleaning, checking locks
• Cognitive characteristics of OCD

  Obsessions (recurring thoughts)

  Recognition of self-generation and inappropriateness

  Attention bias (constantly thinking about obsessions/compulsions)
• Emotional characteristics of OCD

  Guilt and disgust

  Accompanying depression

  Anxiety and distress
• Behavioural characteristics of OCD

  Avoidance and social impairment

  Compulsions (repetitive behaviours)
• Cognitive characteristics of phobias

  Selective attention (constantly thinking about phobia)

  Irrational beliefs

  Recognition of irrationality
• Emotional characteristics of phobias

  Anxiety

  Unreasonable emotional responses eg heightened anger/sadness
• Behavioural characteristics of phobias

  Panic (behaviour caused by anxiety)

  Endurance

  Avoidance
• 3 types of phobias

  Specific phobias eg spiders, dogs

  Social anxiety

  Agoraphobia
• Agoraphobia


  Fear of entering open/crowded spaces where escape may be difficult
• What model does behaviourism use to explain phobias?

  The Two-Process Model
• How are phobias acquired according to behaviourism?

  Through classical conditioning
• How are phobias maintained according to behaviourism?

  Through operant conditioning
• How does operant conditioning maintain phobias?

  1. Phobic response creates intense and unpleasant feelings
  2. Avoidance reduces unpleasant emotions
  3. This is rewarding and acts as negative reinforcement
  4. Increases tendency to avoid in future
• Two-Process Model Evaluation


  Practical applications - systematic desensitisation and flooding

  Trauma isn't necessarily a cause of phobias - 44% people with dog phobia had no bad experience with one

  Genetics may be involved - 62% ppts with blood phobia had relative with phobia - only 3% of population

  Biological predispositions may explain phobias eg. snakes, spiders
• Little Albert


  Case study - baby who was presented with white rat as loud scary noise was played (repeated over 7 weeks)

  Due to association, he became afraid of rats and his fear generalised to all white fluffy things eg cotton wool, Santa beard
• Reciprocal Inhibition


  Idea you cannot feel 2 contrasting emotions simultaneously
• What theory is systematic desensitisation developed from?

  Classical conditioning
• What are the 3 aspects of SD treatment?

  1. Relaxation
  2. Anxiety hierarchy
  3. Gradual exposure
• Steps of Systematic Desensitisation

  1. Patient taught how to relax their muscles
  2. Therapist and patient construct an anxiety hierarchy
  3. Patient gradually exposed while engaging in relaxation exercises
  4. Patient moves up anxiety hierarchy and fear is mastered
• SD Evaluation


  Cost-benefit dilemma - treatment must outweigh trauma caused (still less traumatic than flooding)

  Positive results - Wolpe found 80-90% either cured or highly improved after 24-30 sessions - and based on scientific evidence

  May find it pleasant - low refusal and attrition rates