2ND LONG EXAM

• The theory and practice of delimiting kinds of organisms and classifying them

  taxonomy
• kinds (“species”) of organisms are recognized and delimited

  microtaxonomy
• kinds of organisms are classified, that is, arranged in form of classification

  macrotaxonomy
• This is the branch of systematics that seized on the problem Darwin had seen in classification inthat he felt that genealogy alone was not sufficient to create classification that systematicsneeded to include in formation on ancestors, processes, and degrees of evolutionary difference(similarity) as well as strict genealogy of taxa

  evolutionary taxonomy
• This branch involves the study of the evolutionary relationships among organisms. It aims to establish phylogenetic trees representing the evolutionary history and genetic connections between different species

  systematics
• is a method within systematics that classifies organisms based on shared derived characteristics. It emphasizes on the evolutionary relationships and common ancestry.

  cladistics
• his branch focuses on grouping organisms based on overall similarity in characteristics, regardless of evolutionary relationships. It uses quantitative data and statistical methods to create classifications.

  phenetics
• uses numerical methods to analyze and classify organisms based on observable traits. It involves the use of algorithms and statistical techniques.

  numerical taxonomy
• the "new synthesis" became known as

  evolutionary taxonomy
• evolutionary taxonomy competed with phenetics and cladistics during the cladistics war
• cladistics war became a factor of transforming systematics and classification and forming the basis for contemporary systematic research
• evolutionary taxonomy eventually reached its downfall due to reasons:

  imprecise

  authoritarian

  unable to articulate a specific goal other than ill-defined naturalness
• all the members of a taxonomic group should be descended from a single common ancestor.

  monophyletic
• All systematists today, whether they like it or not, are Hennigan cladists.
• Phenetic classification was based on overall similarity and required an explicit matrix of features, equally weighted.
• phylogenetic systematics is called cladistics
• hennig's three questions

  1. what is a phylogenetic relationship
  2. how is it established
  3. how is knowledge of it expressed so that misunderstandings are excluded
• characters are basis of systematic analysis
• characters are the primary step of establishing homology
• feature based on Morphology, Behavior, and Biochemistry

  intrinsic
• feature based Population size, Geographic location, or Environmental conditions

  extrinsic
• clearly more similar in parents and offspring than they are to other creatures

  phenotypic
• is the most obviously appropriate source of comparative variation

  genotypic
• A type of character states relationship when states transform into one another during develop-ment

  ontogeny
• The type of character states relationship that is the relationship among features that vary within asexually reproducing species and includes "traits."

  tokogeny
• It is any object that occurs at the tips of a tree (also called terminal taxon or leat).

  operational taxonomic units
• It is any object that occurs at nodes of the three

  hypothetical taxonomic units
• This is a representation of nested sister-group relationships and make no statements about character changes, ancestors, or the evolutionary process.

  cladogram
• These are a series of ancestor-descendant statements, the changes between ancestors and descendants can be plotted on the branches that connect them. remains a statement of pattern inthat transformations are specified, and localized between ancestor-descendant pairs, but no motivation or biological explanation is offered.

  trees
• It is endowed with explanation in terms of evolution, ecology, or other biological or geologicalfactors of the changes that are postulated to have occurred on the branches.

  scenario
• A type of group in trees that includes all descendants of a common ancestor, recognized and defined, by synapomorphy and the only natural groups.

  monophyletic
• A type of group in trees that is based on symplesiomorphy.

  paraphyletic
• A type of group in trees that based on convergence evolution.


  polyphyletic
• type of tree with no common ancestor

  unrooted
• type of tree with common ancestor

  rooted
• not all descendants but included common ancestor

  paraphyletic
• no common ancestor at all

  polyphyletic
• In phylogenetic trees, it is a more distantly related group of organisms that serves as a referencegroup when determining the evolutionary relationships of the ingroup, the set of organisms under study.

  outgroup
• branch lengths represents the estimated amount of genetic or evolutionary change
• group of organisms with a common ancestors

  clade