Finals review

• Cell


  The smallest unit of life
• Tissues


  An integrated group of cells with a common function and/or structure
• Organs


  A collection of tissues in an organism that works together to perform one or more functions
• Organ systems 


  A group of organs that work together to perform one or more functions
• Histology (microanatomy) 


  The study microscopic anatomy of tissues
• Physiology 


  The way in which a living organism or bodily part functions
• Nervous tissue


  Nerves, the spinal cord, and the brain are composed of nervous tissues
• Nervous tissues


  Made up of specialized cells called neurons, works to receive, interpret, and respond to signals
• Epithelial tissue 


  Composed of epithelial cells aligned in sheets and connected to one another
• Epithelial tissue 


  This tissue lines the outer surfaces of all organs and blood vessels, in the mouth, and on the surfaces of humans - the outer layer of skin and lining of respiratory tract
• Epithelial tissue


  This tissue works to absorb, secrete, protect and sense
• Directional Terms


  General, directional terms are grouped in pairs of opposites based on the standard position
• Directional Term Pairs


  • Superior and inferior
  • Anterior (ventral) and posterior (dorsal)
  • Medial and Lateral
  • Proximal and distal
  • Superficial and deep
• The elbow is superior (above) to the hand

  The foot is inferior (below) to the knee
• Anterior (ventral)


  Toward the front (chest side) of the body
• Posterior (dorsal)


  Toward the back
• Medial


  Toward the midline of the body
• Lateral


  Away from the midline
• Proximal


  Closest to the point of origin or trunk of the body
• Distal


  Farthest from the point of origin or trunk of the body
• Superficial


  Toward the body surface
• Deep


  Farthest from the body surface
• Regional Terms


  • Abdominal: Abdomen
  • Antecubital: Front of Elbow
  • Axillary: Armpit
  • Brachial: Arm
  • Buccal: Cheek
  • Calcaneal: Heal
  • Carpal: Wrist
  • Cephalic: Head
  • Cervical: Neck
  • Coxal: Hip
  • Digital: Fingers
  • Femoral: Thigh
  • Gluteal: Buttocks
  • Inguinal: Groin
  • Lumbar: Lower spine
  • Nasal: Nose
  • Occipital: Back of head
  • Olecranal: Behind the elbow joint
  • Oral: Mouth
  • Orbital: Eye
  • Patellar: Knee
  • Pelvic: Pelvis
  • Popliteal: Back of knee
  • Sacral: area of spine containing sacrum and coccyx
  • Scapular: Shoulders
  • Sternal: Breast Bone
  • Tarsal: Ankle
  • Thoracic: Chest/Upper back
  • Umbilical: Belly button
  • Vertebral: Back
• Epithelial tissues


  • They are widespread throughout the body
  • They form the covering of all body surfaces, line body cavities and hollow organs
  • They are the major tissue in glands
  • They perform a variety of functions that include protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, filtration, diffusion, and sensory reception
• Connective tissues


  • They bind structures together
  • They form a framework and support for organs and the body as a whole
  • They store fat
  • They transport substances
  • They protect against disease
  • They help repair tissue damage
• Muscle Tissue


  • It is composed of cells that have the special ability to shorten or contract in order to produce movement of the body parts
  • It is highly cellular and is well supplied with blood vessels
  • The cells are long and slender so they are sometimes called muscle fibers
  • They are usually arranged in bundles or layers that are surrounded by connective tissue
  • Actin and myosin are contractile proteins in muscle tissue
• Nervous tissue


  • It is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves
  • It is responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities
  • It stimulates muscle contraction, creates an awareness of the environment, and plays a major role in emotions, memory, and reasoning
  • Cells in nervous tissue need to be able to communicate with each other by way of electrical nerve impulses
• Specialists called forensic anthropologists are trained to analyze the secrets locked in a bone's shape and structure and can use this information to help solve crimes, trace human origins, or identify those who have gone missing
• Forensic anthropologists use a combination of quantitative and qualitative measures to predict traits from bone
• Anthropologists can help identify a deceased from his or her skeletal remains bearing characteristics of ancestry, sex, stature, age and trauma
• Bone Features Used for Identification

  • Sex: Pelvis, skull, femur, tibia, humerus
  • Race: Skull
  • Height: femur, tibia, humerus
  • Age: pelvis, femur, tibia, humerus
• DNA


  • Double helix that carries genetic information
  • Sugar/phosphate backbone
  • Sugar: deoxyribose
  • Bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine
  • Base pairing: A with T and C with G
• PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)

  1. Denaturation: At 94 C (201.2 F), the double-stranded DNA melts and opens into two pieces of single-stranded DNA

  2. Annealing: At medium temperatures, around 54 C (129.2 F), the primers pair up (anneal) with the single-stranded "template" (The template is the sequence of DNA to be copied). On the small length of double-stranded DNA (the joined primer and template), the taq polymerase attaches and starts copying the template

  3. Extension: At 72 C (161.6 F), the taq polymerase works best, and DNA building blocks complementary to the template are coupled to the primer, making a double stranded DNA molecule
• Restriction enzymes


  • An enzyme that cuts DNA at specific recognition nucleotide sequences
  • Such enzymes, found in bacteria are thought to have evolved to provide a defense mechanism against invading viruses
  • Your specific code determines the number of times this set of scissors will snip and the number and size of DNA pieces that will be left behind
  • These pieces can then be separated and compared using the process of gel electrophoresis
  • As these fragments move, their varying lengths propel them through the gel at different speeds
  • Scientists can use these RFLPs, Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms, a set of DNA puzzle pieces unique to only you, to create a pattern called a DNA fingerprint
• Central nervous system (CNS)


  Composed of the brain and spinal cord. Your brain and spinal cord serve as the main "processing center" for the entire nervous system, and control all the workings of your body
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)


  The portion of the nervous system that is outside the brain and spinal cord. Connects and sends messages to CNS
• Brain Regions


  • Occipital lobe: processes vision
  • Temporal lobe: processes language
  • Parietal lobe: processes touch (hands, fingers, face, lips)
  • Frontal lobe: specialized in planning and voluntary movement, paying attention, interpreting our emotions and social situations
  • Cerebral cortex: houses the four lobes of the brain; two hemispheres; most complex thinking: remembering an interpreting emotions
  • Limbic system: satisfying biological needs, reproduction, and emotion, memory
  • Hypothalamus: hunger, thirst, sex drive
  • Pituitary gland: cycles of consciousness thalamus processes all sensory information to cerebral cortex
  • Hippocampus: formation and storage of new memories
  • Amygdala: processes associations between unpleasant emotions and memory for those emotions
  • Basal ganglia: group of neurons working together to help plan and produce movement (Parkinson's)
  • Medulla: controls basic autonomic functions like circulation, breathing, digestion
  • Pons: relay station from hindbrain to cerebral cortex
  • Cerebellum: coordination of motor function
  • Brainstem: lowest part of brain; basics of life support, and neurons that control sensory/motor skills
• Neuron Types


  • Sensory neuron: a neuron conducting impulses inwards to the brain or spinal cord
  • Association neuron: neurons found in the brain and spinal cord that conduct impulses between neurons
  • Motor neuron: a neuron that conveys impulses from the central nervous system to a muscle, gland, or other effector tissue
• Action Potential


  1. Resting Potential

  2. Depolarization

  3. Repolarization

  4. Return to Resting Potential
• Na+/K+ pump


  Maintains the resting potential of neurons