capstone

• systematic process of taking out information from raw data to assist in the interpretation and discussion of information

  data analysis
• data analysis is performed in a way that data would be organized for the effective derivation of explanations of the information being presented.
• data analysis entails the following

  ● Comparing data with existing information as derived from previous studies

  ● Testing consistency of data via repeated measurements to establish accuracy and precision

  ● Assessing the reproducibility of the methodologies adopted for data collection

  ● Evaluating the choice of method (selectivity and sensitivity) on the basis of potential contribution of the results or data

  ● Correlating results representing the variables tested
• involves the application of statistical tools, mathematical transformations, data visualization tools such as graphs and tables, data comparisons with previous literatures, and cross-tabulations, to name a few.

  DATA ANALYSIS
• enable the verification of the uncertainty accompanying each measurement made during data collection

  Statistical Tools Valuable to Data Examination
• number of individual samples taken for analysis with the same size and treated the same manner.


  replicates
• average of the measurements made; it is calculated by dividing the sum of all replicate measurement

  mean
• = ∑xi / n


  sample mean
• ∑xi - represents the summation of the results obtained from all the number of replicates performed or n, and xi,
• Xi - is the individual data of a given data set derived from several replicates
• middle value in a group of values when all data are arranged in either decreasing of increasing manner.

  median
• characterized by standard deviation, variance, and coefficient of variation (also called the percent relative to standard deviation). - closeness of analytical data with one another.


  precision
• —number of degrees of freedom


  (n-1)
• deviation of the data from the mean


  (x-xbar)
• square of the standard deviation - percent relative standard deviation (RSD) or coefficient of variation (CV)

  variance
• closeness of the measurement to a known or acceptable true value

  accuracy
• can come from measurements involving CRM as its composition has been certified and is indicated in a certificate of analysis.


  true value
• based on the outcome of testing the hypothesis

  decisions
• formulated to warrant a deeper investigation on a particular subject matter.


  hypothesis
• Testing includes the following:

  1. Comparing the mean of the data set to a known or true value.
  2. Comparing the 2 means via a t-test or paired t-test for the purpose of a. Determining whether the difference in the two means is due to the presence of random errors or not b. Determining whether the two analytical methods give the same results or not c. Determining whether two researchers employing the same data collection strategies give the same mean or not
  3. Comparing the respective standard deviations of two populations means via an F-test
  4. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
• measures the within-group and between-group variability - useful to test the sources of variations within groups or levels as well as variations between groups

  ANOVA
• designed to enable the artistic and scientific presentation of information derived from the study.

  gaining a deeper understanding of the causal relationships and associations within variables in an illustrative manner.

  Inferential Statistics


  graphical formats
• help in discriminating the strengths of relationships as they may either strongly support or negate the claims you make in your discussion

  graphics
• Your choice of graphics

  depends on the nature of the relationship or association you would like to communicate. Widely used computer programs to prepare these graphical displays include, among others, MS Word, MS Excel, and Origin.
• illustrates the changes on a variable as a function of time or any relationship that would indicate trends or patterns

  line graph
• consists of rectangular blocks, the height of which is reflective of the frequency that it represents.

  bar graph
• rectangular blocks are written next to one another without spaces in-between and that the rectangular blocks are drawn horizontally


  histogram
• slice of each corresponds to the fraction or the distribution of data

  pie chart
• visually demonstrates the changes in one variable as a function of the change in the other variable

  data points are represented usually with dots and that the dots are not connected with one another.


  scattergram or scatterplot
• also a valuable tool to present your data

  Data are written in row and in columns forming a tabular format.

  can be classified as univariate, bivariate, or polyvariate or multivariate.

  tables
• Parts

  ● Title - table number and title

  ● Row headings

  ● Column headings

  ● Body- information about the variable being presented

  ● Footnotes
• may contain a large amount of scientific data that needs to be presented in a clear and concise fashion.

  results and discussion sections
• presents the key results of your research.

  should highlight significant or interesting findings along with P values for statistical tests.

  results section
• Tells about outcomes or findings of the research study.

  Presents the data and findings, ordered/ analyzed in ways justified earlier (methodology)

  Describes the findings in a detailed way based on the data.

  Figures and Tables appear here.

  Past tense is a feature here


  results
• Interpret results in the light of what was already known about the subject and

  Explain how the results answer the question under study

  discussions
• Discussion of results


  1. Gives more comprehensive account of the results

  2. Gives clarification to the main points that you have indicated in your introduction

  3. Confer your findings with the statement of the problem

  4. Must thoroughly explain how the findings answered your research questions or hypotheses

  5. Use your literature review to support your explanations
• Your research


  Relationship to previous studies and explain their similarities and differences
• Discussion of results may point out the additional knowledge and probably new discoveries that your findings may have contributed to the field of study it caters
• Discussion of results should state the boundaries through which your results were obtained and to whom it may be applied
• answers to your research questions or to the hypotheses

  should directly state whether you have achieved the purpose of your study

  major findings of study