Crime

• Cicourel - interactionist

  Crime is socially constructed as police treatment is based on stereotypes - 'typical criminal' = black w/c male - labelling
• Plummer - interactionist

  Crime + deviance = varied from time to time, place to place and culture to culture

  • situational deviance - okay in certain situations and places e.g smoking
  • societal deviance - breaks law/ deviant for society e.g murder
• Box - Marxist

  Bourgeoisie have the power to socially construct what is and isn't a crime to benefit them

  Army commits avoidable crimes due to power e.g murder
• Durkheim - Functionalist

  Boundary testing = deviance helps society evolve and progress e.g Women2Drive - 2011 then ban lifted in 2018
• Durkheim - Functionalist

  Crime is inevitable as everyone has different norms and values (gender, age, ethnicity) = lack of value consensus + higher levels of anomie which increases crime as people have no connection to society
• Durkheim - Functionalist

  Promotion of social cohesion - unified reaction from society e.g Manchester bombings - reinforces social solidarity + recommits people to value consensus
• Durkheim - Functionalism

  Boundary reaffirming - media portrayal of crimes shows punishments which acts to reaffirm boundaries which maintains social order e.g Lucy Letby
• Merton -Functionalist

  Strain theory - strain between societies goals and means to reach them = anomie

  Modes of adaption - retreatism = alcoholism + drug abuse

  -rebellion = new norms and values to create subcultures
• Hirschi - functionalist

  4 controls :

  involvement, belief, commitment, attachment

  Lack of controls = no value consensus + social solidarity = higher levels of anomie and crime
• Cohen - Functionalist

  Status frustration - teenage boys desire status and feel inferior to m/c boys so reject success goals of mainstream society and replace with illegitimate goals they can achieve = delinquent subcultures
• Cloward and Ohlin -Functionalist

  Blocked opportunities - problems in achieving goals of mainstream culture so accept illegitimate means

  criminal subculture, conflict subculture, retreatist subculture
• Miller - Functionalist

  Focal concerns - w/c boys dont try to gain academic success = anomie - toughness, smartness, excitement, fate, trouble
• Murray - Functionalist/ New right

  Poor socialisation - deviant norms based on dependency cultures and encourages laziness - single mothers and absent fathers
• Wilkins - Interactionist

  deviancy amplification spiral - primary deviance = alienation + labelling = increased societal reaction , secondary deviance = deviant career causes moral panic
• Cohen - Interactionist

  Folk devils - Mods and rockers = threats to decent society and labelled as subversive and perverted - emphasise media and societal reaction
• Fawbert- interactionist

  hoodies became a threat to society and a symbol of criminal behavior = labelling which increases a moral panic - 'thugs in hoods'
• Hall - Marxist

  Black muggers - media and politicians exaggerates muggers as folk devils - perpetuating racial stereotypes - created a moral panic and linked race + crime

  Used to distract society from economic crisis
• Becker - interactionist

  Self fulfilling prophecy - labeling leads to master status so accept deviant identity and career and join deviant subcultures
• Lemert - interactionist

  label becomes master status - media amplifies problem which causes more deviance - secondary deviance
• Young - interactionist

  Hippies - police hold stereotypes e.g dirty, scruffy - deviant norms and values develop as they are made to feel different
• Davis - functionalist

  Crime as a safety valve - protects society from more dangerous crimes being committed e.g prostitution
• McRobbie & Garber

  • Women are socialised into a 'bedroom culture' that centres around indoor activities whilst boys are encouraged to play outside
• Heidenshon

  • Patriarchy controls women in both public and private spheres which means they have less opportunities to be involved in deviant subcultures
• Messerschmidt

  • Young males express their hegemonic masculinity through criminal activities
  • Examples: drug dealer = breadwinner, violence = protector, sexism = dominance
• Wilson & Kelling - Right Realist


  • Crime flourishes in communities where 'broken windows' are left unrepaired as it signals that nobody is taking responsibility for their environment.
  • 'Broken windows' refer to signs of disorder and lack of concern for others - e.g. graffiti, vandalism
• Clarke - Right Realist


  • The decision to commit crime is based on a rational calculation of the likely consequences of being caught e.g. balancing the rewards of theft against the consequences of being caught (prison)
  • Crime is increasing because the perceived costs of crime are low - needs increased surveillance cameras
• Lea & Young - Left Realists 


  Relative deprivation, marginalisation, and subculture cause people to commit crimes

  • Relative deprivation = subjective feeling of deprivation felt when comparing oneself to others - fuelled by media images that emphasise consumerism and create resentment in WC
  • Marginalisation = minorities feel abandoned and excluded by society, and lack power economically, socially, and politically
  • Subculture = those who share a sense of deprivation and marginalisation develop subcultures
• Snider - Marxist


  • Overemphasis on street crime to distract away from the white collar and corporate crime that the bourgeoisie commit
  • The upper class use agents of social control to construct laws to control the working class
  • bourgeoisie control whats legal or illegal - they commit the same amount of crime but their power allows them to avoid prosecution
• Chambliss - Marxist


  • Capitalism promotes 'criminogenic' values
  • Individualism and competition leads to stealing
  • Basing status on money leads to fraud
  • Oppression leads to public disorder and violence
• Corporate Crimes -

  • BP - deepwater horizon
  • Johnson and Johnson - Talcum powder
• Hebdige (Marxist) - Mods

  • wanted parental freedom - rebel from class system and factory working, 9-5 lives
  • dressed smartly as a statement of rebellion against parents generation
  • heavy social and party life - stand out above the crowd
• Hebdige (Marxist) - Punks

  • resistance to law and unfair political system - anti establishment and anti capitalism
  • push limit with police and cause disruption to the system
  • loud, aggressive genre of rock music - songs about destroying the system
• Chambliss (Marxist) - Saints and Roughnecks

  • Saints - avoid being labelled 'deviant' as they were financially stable and got good grades - barrier of not receiving punishment
  • Roughnecks - labelled as deviant as they are w/c and lack cultural capital
• Left Realist Solutions to Crime -

  • Lea and Young - deprivation - increase minimum wages
  • Neighborhood watch schemes - community cohesion
  • Closer links with police - reduce fear of crime
• Left Realism -

  Restorative Justice - victims a chance to communicate with their offender to explain real impact, empowers victims

  -The wolf within -implemented change
• Murray (Right Realism) -

  • poor socialistaion leads to a growing underclass that develop a dependency culture
  • blames over generous welfare payments for encouraging laziness - single mothers
• Clarke (Right Realism) - situational crime prevention

  • target hardening - make it harder to commit crimes
  • e.g more home security, more cctv, more guards
• Zimbardo - zero tolerance policy

  • aggressive policing in minor and anti social crime e.g littering, vandalism, drugs, offences, begging, prostitution, graffiti
  • e.g maximum fine for littering
• Gilroy - Neo Marxist

  'culture of resistance' - defended themselves against racism but criminalised by the state

  -victims of racial stereotyping and formal social control
• Waddington - Interactionist

  • Canteen culture - police are institutionally racist to ethnic minorities due to attitudes and values shown by police in their socialising - accepting it into their norm