feminism

• Females are controlled and strictly socialised


  Argued that girls growing up face stricter socialisation in the form of control over their whereabouts, who they associate with.

  This is from an overstated fear of 'stranger danger' and the attacks reported to happen to women.

  In reality, women are mostly attacked by acquaintances.

  Women's violence is more commonly domestic and sexual.
• Strengths of Females are controlled and strictly socialised

  Female crime rates tend to be lower in patriarchal society compared compared to more equal societies - strong patriarchal norms and controls on women's behaviour in parts of the Middle East/Asia correlate with low levels of recorded criminality.

  Increased educational and employment opportunities for women post-WW2 in the West is linked to rising female offending rates - 'freedom' may provide more motivation and opportunities for crime.
• Weaknesses of Females are controlled and strictly socialised


  More female crime in the 'Free West' may be explained by more accurate recording of female crime.

  Cross-cultural research has limitations in comparing very diverse societies with different legal systems.

  Improved gender equality doesn't automatically result in higher criminality - to say patriarchy reduces criminal capability is too simplistic, the links are complex and could just as easily be explained by class, etc.
• Females are judged as 'doubly deviant' and so commit less crimes as a result


  Males committing crime can gain 'kudos' from doing so, their crimes can be seen as 'role-expressive' - a demonstration of their power and ability to protect and be dominant.

  For females, committing crime can be seen as a 'distortion of their roles' - goes against the stereotype of being 'feminine' - they have more to lose, they risk punishment and public disapproval, so risk being 'doubly deviant'.
• Strengths of Females are judged as 'doubly deviant' and so commit less crimes as a result


  Research supports the idea that women are viewed and treated differently after prosecution.

  Lloyd - Argued that as female criminality rose during the 20th century, the justice system & media emphasised the 'unnaturalness' of women who broke the law.

  Allen - Showed that probation officers perceived female offenders as having committed two offenses - a legal crime & a social crime against femininity.
• Weaknesses of Females are judged as 'doubly deviant' and so commit less crimes as a result


  Relies on idea that femininity = passivity and compliance, assumption of a single feminine identity is too simplistic and lacking in acceptable.

  Women offenders have diverse personalities and backgrounds - many reject traditional 'feminine' traits entirely.

  'Double deviance' implies women face a 'doubly punishment' compared to men, some studies found the opposite - female offenders often receive more lenient treatment.

  Too 'reductionist' - focuses on societal reactions rather than reasons women break the law.

  Assumes crime represents a form of deviance from feminist, some women see it as empowering/'liberating
• Law breaking makes a statement

  Carlen - argued that women's lawbreaking represents a political act of resistance against patriarchal oppression. Most women conform & accept 'a deal' to make their lives easier.

  Most women conform and accept 'a deal' to make their lives easier.

  Stated that women raised outside of this gender & class norms, eg. in the care systems are often most marginalised, lack education & employment opportunities.

  They therefore can't settle for the class deal or don't subscribe to the gender deal & are much more likely to commit crime.
• Law breaking makes a statement - Class deal

  Working class women face economic marginalisation & lack of opportunities for legal advancement.

  They suffer the effects of poverty, poor housing, unemployment, etc.

  This material deprivation & frustration fosters motives for crime as a survival strategy.
• Law breaking makes a statement - Gender deal


  All women face patriarchal constraints on their autonomy & independence

  Traditional gender roles, norms & expectations limits women's options.

  Male dominance & violence restricts women's freedom & self-determination.

  Women's sexuality is regulated & policed by a patriarchal culture.

  This subordination creates motivation to break rules & assert identity.
• Strengths of Law breaking makes a statement

  Carlen's own interviews with convicted working-class women offenders in the 80s, many of whom reported lives of deprivation and abuse.

  Box - 1983 study of female prisoners found high levels of neglect, childhood institutionalisation, domestic violence & sole parenting: indicators of both class & gender disadvantages.

  Highlights the importance of intersecting inequalities - both class and gender shape women's experiences.

  Draws attention to economic marginalisation of working-class women as a motive for crime.
• Weaknesses of Law breaking makes a statement

  Lacks hard empirical evidence linking deprivation to female offending - Carlen relies on interpretive data. Quantitative testing of the direct effects of gender inequality and economic marginality on female offending remains limited.

  It downplays individual choice as not all disadvantaged women turn to crime.

  Exaggerates middle-class women's motivation; most crime is about gain not identity.

  Working-class women also commit 'expressive' crimes out of anger not need.
• Liberation theory - the rise of the new female criminality


  Argued increased female crime represented a form of 'liberation' as gender roles modernised or become similar.

  This has led women to adopt more masculine behaviour & subsequently crimes.

  Traits encouraged in the modern women to succeed in their career are masculine and can lead to crimes associated with this behaviour.

  Highlighted trends like rising female arrests, increased labour force participation & women committing more 'masculine' offenses as support.

  Suggested liberation had 'equalised' criminality.
• Strengths of Liberation theory - the rise of the new female criminality

  Jackson and Denscombe - Both found that teenage girls were adopting laddish behaviour & male values such as being 'hard' or taking risks.

  There has been a 53% increase in women sentenced to prison in the UK since 2000.

  Chisney-Lind - There is evidence that females are branching into male dominated crimes such as drug offenses.
• Weaknesses of Liberation theory - the rise of the new female criminality


  Men account for the vast majority of recorded crimes, prosecutions and prison populations - so this great liberation is overstated.

  Liberation thesis oversimplifies complex links between equality and crime as well as gender dynamics.

  Gelsthorpe - Increased detection, reporting & prosecution likely contribute to higher recorded female crime & so a decrease in 'chivalry' might explain the up-tick in female crime rates.

  Not all female criminals would say that they 'felt liberated' or 'equal to men', when committing crime as was assumed by Alder.

  Many females are 'put onto crime' by male figures, eg. by partners such as drug dealing, fraud, etc so far from liberated but actually initiated by men.