gender and crime

• functionalism:sex role theory. Differential socialisation PARSONS


  Parsons- children socialised into sex roles. boys and girls spend more time with mothers as fathers are working (instrumental roles) - gives access to the role model of expressive role, socialised to be kind caring etc and not develop traits like toughness aggression, risktaking. so girls are more likely to conform.

  
  

  female crime - shoplifting and prostitution - express socialised roles of family caregiver and sexual provider.

  
  

  boys spend less time with fathers but know they're not supposed to be feminine so distance themselves from it. resort to being rough, aggressive risk-taking - compulsive masculinity
• contol theory - patriarchy - differential contol (HIDENSOHN)


  women commit fewer crimes because patriarchal control reduces opportunities for offending.

  control at home: women's dual burden = less time to offend. girls monitored.. more time indoors - bedroom culture = less opportunity to offend.

  DOBASH + DOBASH - if women try to reject this they may be controlled violently - domestic violence. (illegible word) also emotionally or financially.

  
  

  control in public - fear of crime - women avoid going out after dark. women conform to avoid being labelled as unfeminine eg as sluts

  
  

  control at work - fewer women in senior positions so less opportunities for white-collar crime
• control theory - rational choice - class and gender deals (CARLEN)


  unstructured interviews: 39 WC women aged 15-46. They turned to crime when the rewards of crime removed the controls that prevented them from offending. They have 'nothing to lose and everything to gain' from offending.

  some women could not find legitimate ways of making money even though they had qualifications and had been on training courses. They turned to crime. Shows a rejection of the class deal (women conforming in return for decent wages and standard of living

  
  

  other women had not had a rewarding family life (e.g.victims of abuse or experienced foster care). they did not get financial or emotional rewards from family life so had no reason to conform. shows a rejection of the gender deal ( women conform to domestic gender roles for material and emotional rewards. crime is a rational choice.
• Liberation thesis (explanantion for why women do more crime)


  society becoming less patriarchal. Gederquake (WILKSON)

  women more liberated.

  This is leading women to commit more crimes and the same types of crimes as men (ie women no longer carry out stereotypical crimes eg prostitution and shoplifting).

  improved career opportunities - more women in senior positions - more opportunities to commit crimes such as fraud.

  -rise in violent girl gangs, armed robbery etc
• feminisation of poverty (explanation why women do more crime)


  some feminists have argued that poverty has become feminised in the last 20 years, as women have become increasingly more likely than men to experience low pay and benefits, consequently, some types of crime are dominated by women eg shoplifting and social security fraud ( when an individual applies for Social Security benefits and intentionally provides bogus application information to receive the money they're not eligible for) may be a reaction to poverty

  
  

  WALKLATE: shoplifting and sex work are often motivated by economic necessity for example to provide children with food, toys and clothes
• chivalry thesis - reasons why women treated differently to men in CJS


  most criminal justice agents - such as police officers, magistrates and judges -are men, and men are socialised to act in a 'chivalrous' way towards women

  OTTO POLLACK - men have a protective attitude towards women and men hate to accuse women and send them to punishment, police dislike to arrest them etc.

  so the criminal justice system is more lenient with women.

  
  

  FOR - self-report studies males are 2.33 times more likely to admit to having committed an offence

  official statistics show males are 4x more likely to offend

  FLOOD - PAGE ET AL 1/11 females self-reported offenders cautioned or prosecuted, for males 7/11.

  official statistics: females are more likely than males to be released on bail rather than remain in custody. females are more likely than males to receive a fine than be sent to prison. women serve shorter sentences

  
  

  AGAINST - Self-reporting studies show evidence that males commit more offences. The gender gap increases as crimes become more serious.

  underreporting of male crimes against women. In 2012 only 8% of females who had been victims of a serious sexual assault reported it
• double deviance - CJS bias against women


  criminal justice system against women. The courts treat females more harshly than males when they deviate from gender norms.

  -double standards - courts punish girls but not boys for premature or promiscuous sexual activity. SHARPE - 7/11 girls were referred for assault because they were sexually active but none of the 44 boys.

  
  

  -women who don't conform to accepted standards of monogamous heterosexuality and motherhood are punished more harshly.

  STEWART: magistrates' perceptions of female defendants' characters were based on stereotypical gender roles.

  CARLEN: when women are jailed it is because it is less for the seriousness of their crimes and more according to the court's assessment of them as wives, mothers and daughters.

  
  

  feminists argue that these double standards exist because the criminal justice system is patriarchal
• hegemonic masculinity - aggressive masculinity accomplishing masculinity (MESSERSCHMIDT)

  explanation of why crimes are committed by men

  masculinity is an accomplishment: their work at constructing their masculinity and presenting it to others

  W/C and ethnic minorities lack resources to achieve hegemonic masculinity eg businessmen express power through control over women and other men in the workplace. WC meen express power through violence at home or in the street.

  crime and deviance are resources for gaining masculinity.

  MC BOYS achieve educational success but at the expense of emasculation. they have to adopt an accommodating subordinate masculinity in school. They compensate this for out of school by adopting oppositional masculinity.: engaging in pranks, excessive drinking and high spirits.

  
  

  white collar crime can be a way of accomplishing a hegemonic masculinity: can be seen as assertive and risk taker and is a source of money.

  
  

  WC are less likely to demonstrate hegemonic masculinity through success. oppositional; masculinity inside and outside school: defying searches, being aggressive, being sexist. leads into adulthood can lead to crime.
• post-modernists explanations of crime KATZ + LYNG - edgework


  KATZ: criminology has failed to understand the role of pleasure in committing crime. men's search for pleasure and excitement is the central motivation for crime and delinquency. violent crime is 'seductive' undertaken for chaos, thrill and potential danger. pleasure is derived from the thrill and power exercised over others.

  
  

  LYNG: edgework - young males seek pleasure - they like risk-taking. their thrill is gained from acting in ways that are on the edge between security and danger (edgework).

  Successful criminal action is the main way young men who are objectively insecure (few educational qualifications and may have no job) prove they do have some control over their lives.
• post-modernists explanations of crime WINLOW -bodily capital and night-time economy


  -globalisation led to the loss of many traditional manual jobs. men can't express masculinity through hard physical labour. to maintain their reputation and employability men must use their bodily capital: eg working as a bouncer - The night-time economy has been created where men can work as security in clubs, bars, and pubs to express masculinity

  
  

  signs of masculinity become important. commodities in their own right. postmodern industrial society -> postmodern deindustrial society. opens up opportunities for men who use violence to express masculinity by creating conditions for the growth of an organised criminal subculture.
• What types of crime are commonly committed by women?

  Property offences except burglary, shoplifting, fraud especially benefits, and prostitution.
• What types of crime are commonly committed by men?

  Violent crime, assault, sexual offences, white collar crime, and corporate crime.
• What percentage of women have a conviction by the age of 40?

  9%
• What percentage of men have a conviction by the age of 40?

  32%
• Why do women commit less crime than men according to the outline provided?

  Women tend to commit less detectable crimes than men.
• What is the general tendency of men when they shoplift compared to women?

  Men tend to select bigger, more detectable items than women.
• What does Sex Role Theory suggest about female crime rates?

  Females commit less crime than men due to their socialization and access to adult role models.
• According to Walklate, what biological assumption is made about men and women?

  Women are seen as more nurturing due to childbearing.
• What does Control Theory state about women's crime rates?

  Women commit less crime due to patriarchal control in various areas of life.
• How can equal opportunities affect patriarchal control according to the study material?

  Equal opportunities could be reducing patriarchal control.
• What are the Class and Gender Deals according to Carlen?

  Class Deal provides material rewards for paid work, while Gender Deal offers emotional rewards for conforming to traditional roles.
• What is a limitation of Carlen's study regarding women's access to rewards?

  Not all women are able to access these rewards, leading some to turn to crime.
• How does socialization affect women's behavior regarding crime?

  Women are socialized to be the "Guardians of domestic morality," risking social exclusion if they commit crime.
• What is the Chivalry Thesis proposed by Pollack?

  Women are less likely to be charged or convicted due to the male-dominated CJS being chivalrous towards them.
• What is an evaluation of the Chivalry Thesis?

  There are now more women in the CJS, which challenges the Chivalry Thesis.
• What is double deviancy in the CJS for women?

  Women face double deviancy when their crimes go against traditional gender norms.
• What does the Liberation Thesis by Freda Adler suggest?

  As women become more liberated from patriarchal control, female crime rates will increase.
• What is a criticism of the Liberation Thesis regarding crime rates?

  Crime rates for women began rising in the 1950s before the liberation movement.
• What does the Feminisation of Poverty imply about women and crime?

  Women living under the poverty line may turn to crime to make ends meet.
• What is the Masculinity Theory proposed by Messerschmidt?

  Men commit crime to demonstrate their masculinity and prove their manhood.
• What is a limitation of the Masculinity Theory?

  It may describe offenders rather than explain their behavior.
• What does Labelling Theory suggest about men and crime?

  Men are often stereotyped as more violent, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy in their behavior.
• How has the rise of the symmetrical family affected male crime rates?

  Men are no longer seen as the sole providers for the family, which may influence crime rates.
• Why do men have more opportunities to commit crime?

  Men are more likely to be in situations that lead to both blue collar and white collar crime.
• What is a limitation of the opportunity explanation for male crime rates?

  It does not explain why men commit the specific crimes they do.