Normative and ethical theories

• Natural moral law:

  • Thomas aquinas
  • " One law both everlasting and unchangeble" - cicero
  • "do good and avoid evil"
  • Obeying the primary precepts leads to eudaimonia
  • deontological (rules/duty)
  • absolutist
• The primary precepts:

  Preserve life, reproduce and live in an ordered society.
• The secondary precepts:

  These are rules that help humans apply precepts to specific situations.
• Telos= purpose
• Example of a secondary precept being applied:

  use of contraception is wrong as it prevents reproduction which is a primary precept, which is the telos (purpose) of sex.
• Real and apparent goods:

  Our idea of good is not the same as virtuous good, these rules guide us to achieve real goods.
• "Do good and avoid evil"- Cicero
• Double effect:

  Putting aside a secondary precept to uphold a primary precept.

  e.g. a pregnant woman who is at risk of death if she gives birth so a doctor would end the pregnany to save the mothers life. (idea of quality and sanctity of life)
• Proportionalism:

  when a principle is upheld unless there is a proportionate reason not to.
• Strengths of natural moral law:

  • guidelines and boundries are a helpful guidance
  • many different versions can be developed
  • encourages a person to develop their character
• Weakness of natural moral law:

  • applying secondary precepts could lead to worse outcomes e.g. banning contraception leading to the spread of HIV.
  • anthropocentrism--> makes the animal kingdom subservient to humans (humans are prioritised)
• Situation ethics:

  • joseph fletcher
  • teleological
  • consequentialist
  • telos (purpose)
  • this theory was made due to a decline in church attendance and a number of major liberalising laws relating to suicide, abortion, homosexuality and capital punishment
  • its flexible
  • emphasises importance of individual
  • straightforward
• Legalism: (natural moral law and divine command theory)

  • obedience to rules
  • backed up by special revelation
  • casuistry and double effect developed to deal with hard exceptional cases
• Antinomianism:

  each situation is unique, there should be no rules directing human behaviour

  • holy spirit guides you to know what is right and wrong
  • existentialism--> individuals making their own morality through reponse to challenges in life.
  • Fletcher disagreed with antinomianism as it was random and unprincipled, ignored jesus' law of love
• Situationism:

  middle way between legalism and antinomianism

  • based on agape love
  • purpose
  • reason
  • accepts the bible principle "love thy neighbour"
  • based on the most loving outcome
• Conscience:

  something we do, not something we have

  • form of guidance before decision is made
• Fletchers four presumptions:

  1. pragmatism: final outcome
  2. relativism: most loving
  3. positivism: leap of faith
  4. personalism: people-centered
• Fletchers six working principles:

  1. love only is always good
  2. love is the only norm
  3. love and justice are the same
  4. love is not liking
  5. love justifies its means
  6. love decisions are made based on situation and not rules
• Strengths of situation ethics:

  • flexible
  • freedom of choice encourages taking responsibility for decision making
  • true to jesus' teaching of agape love
  • seek others best interest
  • works in modern age and meets peoples needs
• Weakness of situation ethics:

  • closer to antinomianism
  • the agapeic calculus is hard to apply
  • following rules does not diminish freedom
  • theory only works in extreme conditions, is it really useful in everyday life?
• Virtue ethics

  • Aristotle
  • character based
  • personal
  • not 'do' but 'what should i be?'
  • final end is eudaimonia (human flourishing)
• The function argument:

  1. Everything has a function
  2. goodness lies in performing ones function well
  3. everything living has a soul
  4. the uniqueness of the human soul lies in its capacity for rational thought
  5. reasoning well is how humans attain goodness and that entails exercising virtue for their entire lives
• " The good life is in which we reason well"- aristotle
• The virtues:

  • courage
  • friendliness
  • generosity
  • truthfulness
  • high-mindedness
  • good temper
  • modesty
  • formed by repetition, practise and imitating virtuous people.
• The doctrine of the mean:

  the mean between two extremes

  • relative to each individual
  • takes into account the circumstance
• The importance of proper intention:

  • people are acting virtuously only if they know what they are doing e.g a man jumping into a river to save a drowning child not thinking that they are in danger themselves. (thats not acting virtuously)
  • people act virtuously is their act is a reasoned choice e.g not being greedy with food at a family gathering is virtuous, however its not virtuous if their act is motivated by desire, or to impress others.
  • actions carried out as a result of reasoned choice reveals a persons character.
• Strengths of virtue ethics:

  • It helps a person develop
  • people-centred
  • doctrine of the mean takes into account different people and circumstances
  • accepts the fact there isnt always a perfect answer
  • being virtuous embraces the individual and others
• Weakness of virtue ethics:

  • the anthropocentric (people-centred) nature of virtue ethics seen is aristotles hierarchy does not take into account animals/environment
  • lack of clear guidance makes it too vague especially in rapid developments of technology and demands
• Application of theft: natural moral law


  
  

  • breaches primary precept to live in an ordered society
  • contrary to the secondary precept do not steal
  • Aquinas said a starving man can steal food from someone who has plenty as the primary precept to preserve life would take priority over living in an ordered society
  • seen as practising cardinal virtue of justice and the theological virtue of love
  • PROPORTIONALISM--> intention behind it has to be good and value of saving life is greater than injustice done to victim of theft.
• Application of theft: situation ethics

  
  

  Fletcher would take influence from teachings from the bible and the church but not feel bound to them

  • rules have priority
  • application of agape
  • motive and consequence of an action is considered
  • agapeic calculus would be applied to ensure justice
• Application of theft: virtue ethics

  • acting from habit
  • takes into account the individual and the situation
  • theft can never be an act of a virtuous person
  • Aristotles teachings were addressed to his own social class
• Application of lying: natural moral law

  • lying breaches the primary precept to live in an ordered society
  • contrary to the secondary precept to not tell lies
  • lying goes against cardinal virtues of courage and justice
  • aquinas viewed lying as wrong even if intending to save a life
  • You can keep back the truth (tell a white lie), to protect someone from danger
  • PROPORTIONALISM--> as long as intention is to save life and value of saving life is much greater than the injustice made to the person being lied to.
• Application of lying: situation ethics

  • fletcher believed it was neither intrinsically right or wrong
  • love was the biggest factor
  • lying would be the lesser of two evils
• Application of lying: virtue ethics

  • Truthfulness is one aristotles moral virtues
  • interaction between one person and another
  • more complex than merely telling the truth or a lie
  • friendship, loyalty and honour might require a lie to be told