CCET

• Biology


  The study of life, covering various branches like botany (plants), zoology (animals), and microbiology (microorganisms)
• The Scientific Method

  1. Observation

  2. Hypothesis

  3. Experiment

  4. Analysis

  5. Conclusion
• The Scientific Method


  • Observing plant growth, hypothesizing the effect of light, testing with experiments, analyzing results, concluding findings
• Atoms and Molecules


  Basic units of matter, made of protons, neutrons, and electrons
• Chemical Bonds

  • Ionic (transfer of electrons)
  • Covalent (sharing of electrons)
  • Hydrogen (weak attractions)
• Polarity


  Water molecules have positive and negative ends
• Properties of Water

  • Cohesion (sticks to itself)
  • Adhesion (sticks to other surfaces)
  • Excellent solvent
• Macromolecules

  • Carbohydrates
  • Lipids
  • Proteins
  • Nucleic Acids
• Carbohydrates


  Sugars and starches, provide energy
• Lipids


  Fats and oils, store energy, make up cell membranes
• Proteins


  Made of amino acids, perform various cellular functions
• Nucleic Acids


  DNA and RNA, carry genetic information
• Prokaryotic Cells


  • Simple cells without a nucleus (e.g., bacteria)
• Eukaryotic Cells


  • Complex cells with a nucleus (e.g., plant and animal cells)
• Organelles

  • Nucleus (control center)
  • Mitochondria (energy production)
  • Ribosomes (protein synthesis)
• Passive Transport


  Movement without energy (diffusion, osmosis)
• Active Transport


  Movement using energy (pumps, endocytosis, exocytosis)
• Mitosis


  Division of a cell into two identical cells
• Meiosis


  Division producing cells with half the chromosomes (gametes)
• Cell Cycle

  1. Interphase

  2. Mitosis

  3. Cytokinesis
• Mendelian Genetics


  Traits passed from parents to offspring (dominant and recessive genes)
• Punnett Squares


  Tool to predict genetic outcomes
• DNA Structure

  Double helix, made of nucleotides
• Replication


  Copying DNA for cell division
• Transcription and Translation


  DNA to RNA to proteins
• Genetic Engineering


  Modifying DNA (e.g., GMOs)
• Natural Selection


  Survival of the fittest
• Evidence for Evolution

  • Fossils
  • Comparative anatomy
  • DNA similarities
• Genetic Drift


  Random changes in gene frequency
• Gene Flow


  Movement of genes between populations
• Mutation


  Changes in DNA
• Speciation


  Formation of new species
• Hominid Evolution


  Development from early ancestors to modern humans
• Modern Human Diversity


  Genetic variation within humans
• Biotic and Abiotic Factors


  Living and non-living components
• Energy Flow

  1. Food chains

  2. Food webs

  3. Trophic levels
• Biogeochemical Cycles

  Carbon, nitrogen, water cycles
• Population Dynamics


  Growth models, carrying capacity
• Human Impact

  Deforestation, pollution, climate change
• Conservation Strategies

  Protected areas, sustainable development