eh 5 - 8 lectures

• Nationalism


  Viewed neutrally without an a priori normative viewpoint, often contrasted with patriotism as a negative heritage in Europe. It is considered a "thin" ideology that frequently appears in combination with other ideologies, leading to the use of adjectives like civic nationalism or ethnic nationalism to qualify it. The concept of nationalism is seen as a modern phenomenon, emerging in the 18th century alongside societal changes and the idea of nations as "imagined communities"
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau


  • Advocated for the idea of popular sovereignty, where political authority resides with the people
  • Emphasized the importance of good customs and a "national character" among the populace
  • Viewed education as a crucial instrument for shaping individuals and preserving cultural identity
  • Supported the preservation of cultural identity in nations like Poland
• Johann Gottfried von Herder


  • Reacted against the cultural dominance of France during his time
  • Introduced the concept of "Volksgeist," suggesting that all people possess a unique national or cultural identity
  • Emphasized the equal value of all cultures and stressed the importance of cultural diversity
  • Promoted the appreciation of "folk" culture, which includes folklore, stories, songs, and other elements that reflect the essence of a particular culture
• American Revolution


  1. Response to the perceived corruption and tyranny of European powers, particularly Britain, over the American colonies

  2. Rejection of the aristocratic social structure prevalent in Europe, where power and privilege were concentrated in the hands of the nobility

  3. Americans believed in their moral superiority and saw themselves as champions of liberty and justice, contrasting with what they viewed as the oppressive rule of European monarchies

  4. Led to the development of the idea of American exceptionalism, the belief that the United States has a unique mission and destiny in the world, distinct from that of other nations
• Brabant Revolution (1789 – 1790)


  1. Directed against the rule of Emperor Joseph II

  2. Resulted in the establishment of the "United Belgian States," marking a significant challenge to imperial authority

  3. Involved a mix of aristocratic and clerical opposition to Joseph II's reforms, alongside democratic aspirations among the populace

  4. One of the notable outcomes was a shift in identity, with people beginning to identify themselves as citizens of Belgium rather than subjects of the Austrian Empire

  5. Led to the politicization of the population, as people became more engaged in matters of governance and political decision-making
• French Revolution


  1. Signaled the demise of the Ancien Régime and the emergence of democratic politics in Europe

  2. Had significant international repercussions but also played a crucial role in shaping the foundation of the French nation

  3. Sought to create a unified and indivisible nation, departing from the fragmented feudal system of governance

  4. The idea of a nation had been gradually developing before the revolution, often deployed by the Parlements in their conflicts with the monarchy

  5. During the revolution, the concept of the nation underwent crucial transformations, as new meanings and interpretations emerged
• Sièyes


  • Advocated for the "Third Estate" as the true essence of the nation, challenging the privileged groups
  • Depicted the aristocracy as foreigners, descending from German invaders of Gallic France, emphasizing the unity of the nation against external influence
• Voluntary nation


  The concept of the nation was inclusive, based on shared values rather than exclusive criteria, allowing for the incorporation of individuals who embraced those values
• The revolution brought about emancipation for Jews and Protestants, extending citizenship rights to previously marginalized groups. Despite initial hesitations, slavery was abolished in 1794, reflecting the revolutionary ideals of liberty and equality
• Toussaint Louverture, the leader of the Haitian slave rebellion, aligned himself with the values of revolutionary France, illustrating the universal appeal of the nation's principles
• One nation during the French Revolution

  • Characterized by a strong intolerance for dissidence, aiming for moral unity within the nation
  • Pluralist politics were not yet normalized, leading to a lack of tolerance for dissenting voices
  • Involved internal homogenization, opposing minority cultures and languages within France, which were viewed as counter-revolutionary
• Corsica


  • Initially distrustful of France, but during the early revolutionary years, there was some acceptance of the promises of liberty offered by the French Revolution
  • From 1792 to 1794, conflicts escalated, leading to the temporary secession of Corsica as tensions between the island and revolutionary France intensified
• Revolutionary wars


  • Viewed by participants as the initiation of a universal process of liberation
  • Many revolutionaries believed in the necessity and virtue of revolutionary wars, which commenced in 1792, to spread the ideals of the revolution beyond France's borders
  • Highlighted contradictions between France's identity as a purported universal model and its actions as a nation asserting authority abroad
  • While the revolution had a tangible impact, its militaristic expansionism often created complications and backlash both domestically and internationally
  • This expansionist approach sometimes provoked anti-revolutionary sentiment in other nations
• Napoleon


  • His conquests triggered significant anti-French sentiment across Europe
  • Active opposition against Napoleon was rare, but notable exceptions include the resistance in Spain
  • His actions often sparked nationalist reactions in conquered territories, especially in Germany
  • There was a strong surge of anti-French intellectual fervor during his reign
  • His presence and policies played a pivotal role in the emergence and consolidation of German national identity, effectively contributing to the creation of the German nation
• German nationalism


  • Emerged as a response to French cultural dominance, which had begun in the 18th century
  • Napoleon's era further intensified German nationalist sentiments due to French cultural imperialism
• Johann Gottlieb Fichte


  • Played a significant role in fostering German nationalism through his series of lectures titled "Addresses to the German Nation," delivered between 1807 and 1808
• Nationalism in Restoration Europe

  • Viewed as a subversive force by prominent restoration powers like Metternich
  • Restoration Europe largely ignored considerations of nationality
  • Revolutions during this period often posed a threat to the established order and occasionally had a nationalistic aspect
  • There were also initial discussions on the potential usefulness of nationalism, such as Tocqueville's suggestion that nationalism could serve as a tool for achieving social cohesion, such as through colonial conquests like in Algeria
• Nationalists before 1848


  • Typically members of the elite, but almost always liberals or democrats, and frequently also advocates of social reform
  • Many of them faced exile due to their nationalist activities
  • Generally, they did not perceive relations between nations as competitive, but rather shared the idea of a Europe composed of nations
  • However, there were instances of ambivalence or negativity towards other nations and peoples among these early nationalists
• Romanticism


  An artistic and cultural movement dominant in the early 19th century, reacting against the rationalism of the Enlightenment and embracing emotion, imagination, and individualism
• Romanticism and Nationalism


  • Romanticism's political impact was diffuse, inspiring both conservatives and radicals
  • In nationalism, it emphasized the perpetuity and uniqueness of a nation, fostering a heightened interest in preserving national culture
  • Nationalism often involved claims of moral superiority and the need to preserve it, cultivating traits like masculine militarism and female "virtue"
  • These characteristics were notably evident in the emerging German nationalism during Napoleon's rule
• Ernst Moritz Arndt


  • Journalist and vocal opponent of Napoleon
  • Embraced liberal ideals but harbored anti-Polish and anti-Semitic sentiments
• Friedrich Jahn


  • Organized the patriotic "Turnbewegung" (Gymnastics Movement)
  • Advocated liberal principles but displayed some xenophobic tendencies
• Daniel O'Connell


  • Leader of Irish nationalist agitation
  • Spearheaded the movement for Catholic Emancipation in 1829
  • Advocated for Irish self-government within the United Kingdom
  • Organized peaceful mass protests to advance nationalist causes
  • Supported the rights of other nations and was hostile against anti-Semitism
  • Strong opponent of slavery and advocated for the rights of indigenous peoples, including Aborigines and Maori
• Giuseppe Mazzini


  • Most important 19th-century Italian theoretician of nationalism and political agitator
  • Organized several conspiracies and was one of the three leaders of the revolutionary Roman Republic in 1849
  • Held an essentialist vision of the Italian nation
  • Embraced a democratic vision of nationalism, inclusive of women's rights, but advocated for a unitary state
  • Believed in the liberty of all peoples and envisioned "a Europe of free peoples"
• Cristina di Belgiojoso


  • Prominent Italian patriot from an important Milanese aristocratic family
  • Known as a patriot, journalist, writer, social activist, and feminist
  • Actively participated in the revolutions of 1848-1849
  • Played a role in organizing hospitals in Rome during the revolution of 1849
• Belgian Revolution (1830)


  1. Revolt against Dutch authorities with substantial involvement from the populace

  2. Characterized by an alliance between liberals and Catholics, who joined forces in opposition to the Protestant and authoritarian Dutch rule

  3. Inspired by the events of the French Revolution in 1830, Belgians sought to assert their independence and establish their own national identity

  4. Beyond its political aims, the revolution may have also contained elements of a social uprising, as it engaged broad segments of society and could have potentially led to socioeconomic changes within Belgian society
• Poland


  • Stood out as one of the most active nationalist movements throughout the 19th century
  • Had lost its independence in the late 18th century, leading to a series of insurrections in subsequent decades, notably in 1830-1831 and 1863-1864
  • These uprisings were met with increasingly intense policies of Russification by the occupying Russian authorities
  • The Polish nationalist movement faced challenges such as military weakness and social divisions, particularly concerning the agrarian question
  • Over time, Polish nationalism evolved beyond strictly political aims to include a cultural revival, emphasizing the restoration of Polish identity and heritage
  • The movement was largely Catholic and occasionally displayed tendencies toward anti-Semitism, reflecting broader social and political dynamics within Polish society
• Ireland


  • Nationalism was viewed as a subversive force by prominent restoration powers like Metternich
  • Restoration Europe largely ignored considerations of nationality
  • Revolutions during this period often posed a threat to the established order and occasionally had a nationalistic aspect
  • However, there were also initial discussions on the potential usefulness of nationalism, such as Tocqueville's suggestion that nationalism could serve as a tool for achieving social cohesion, such as through colonial conquests like in Algeria
• 1848 – Spring of Nations

  1. Liberal and democratic ideals were central to many of the uprisings, with demands for constitutional reforms, representative government, and individual freedoms

  2. Nationalism played a significant role, particularly in Italy and Hungary, where movements for national independence and unification were prominent. The desire for self-determination and the establishment of nation-states fueled these nationalist aspirations

  3. In Germany, the revolution also had a strong national component, as various German-speaking regions sought greater political unity and autonomy within a German nation-state

  4. However, conflicting claims of nationalities within territories like Germany and Hungary contributed to the failure of the revolutions in some areas. Disputes over national identity and conflicting demands for autonomy or independence among different ethnic groups undermined the cohesion of revolutionary movements and provided opportunities for counter-revolutionary forces to exploit divisions
• Nationalism after 1848


  • Institutionalization: Nationalism became more institutionalized, with existing states and institutions utilizing nationalist rhetoric and symbols to strengthen their legitimacy and control over populations
  • Confirmation of States: Nationalism was increasingly deployed to confirm the existence and boundaries of states, promoting a sense of unity and loyalty among citizens to the established political order
  • International Politics: Nationalism also became a significant factor in international politics, shaping relations between states and influencing diplomatic strategies and alliances
  • Conservative and Racist Content: Some forms of nationalism took on a more conservative tone and, at times, incorporated racist ideologies, emphasizing cultural superiority and exclusionary practices
  • Oppositional Forms: Despite this trend, oppositional forms of nationalism persisted, particularly among minority groups seeking autonomy or independence. These movements often challenged the dominant nationalist narratives and advocated for the rights and recognition
• Nationalism


  • Became more institutionalized
  • Existing states and institutions utilized nationalist rhetoric and symbols to strengthen their legitimacy and control over populations
• Confirmation of States


  Nationalism was increasingly deployed to confirm the existence and boundaries of states, promoting a sense of unity and loyalty among citizens to the established political order
• International Politics


  Nationalism became a significant factor in international politics, shaping relations between states and influencing diplomatic strategies and alliances
• Conservative and Racist Content


  Some forms of nationalism took on a more conservative tone and, at times, incorporated racist ideologies, emphasizing cultural superiority and exclusionary practices
• Oppositional Forms


  Despite this trend, oppositional forms of nationalism persisted, particularly among minority groups seeking autonomy or independence. These movements often challenged the dominant nationalist narratives and advocated for the rights and recognition of marginalized communities
• Unification nationalism - Italy

  1. Leadership of Piedmontese Kings

  2. Unification from Above

  3. Creating an Italian Identity

  4. Centralism vs. Regionalism

  5. Irredentism
• Unification nationalism - Germany

  1. Bismarck's Leadership

  2. Preservation of Existent States

  3. Militaristic Dimension

  4. Expansionist Potential

  5. Attitudes Toward Minorities
• State nationalism


  States took an active role in fostering nationalism among their populations
• State nationalism


  • Mandatory education became a key tool in this endeavor, with states utilizing schools to instill national identity
  • States engaged in the "invention of tradition," marking public spaces, crafting national histories, and commissioning patriotic works of art to cultivate a sense of shared identity
• Minority nationalism


  Its importance grew due to increasing state nationalism and intervention, particularly in areas such as education, where states aimed to promote a unified national identity