industrialization

• industrialisation


  Transformation of predominantly agrarian, rural societies into industrial and urban societies
• Introduction of technology affects the organisation of labour - true or false?


  true

  
  

  (new techno, more effective, steam engines)

  (shift from primary sector to secondary sector)
• 4 characteristics of scientific agriculture (18th C)

  - introduction of new crops

  - technical improvements (improved drainage, soil enrichment, crop rotation)

  - scientific methods for breeding

  - mechanisation
• enhanced productivity created...


  a surplus labour force (availability for factory work in urban centers)
• process of industrialisation when

  1750 - 1914
• three big waves of industrialisation

  - 1780s - 1820s: INDUSTRIAL TAKE-OFF british leader (and belgium)

  - 1840s - 1870s: acceleration and spread: FOLLOWER ECONOMIES

  - 1890s - 1900s: LAGGARD ECONOMIES (Russia/Italy)
• Ottoman Empire: de-industrialisation


  • State-led industrialisation in Egypt (1820s, iron, cotton) but negatively impacted by deathof Muhammad Ali in 1849

  
  

  • Industrialiation negatively affected by political instability and import of (cheap) European goods (reduction of domestic tax revenues)

  
  

  • Growing financial control of European powers; forced opening and liberalisation of market
• wave 1 industrialisation: British leadership - why?

  - resources close to sea

  - constitutional monarchy and (relative) political instability

  - economic liberalisation

  - commercial class (private capital for investments)

  - a labour surplus
• Land enclosure + benefits

  = individually owned land (property rights) replaced the traditional, open field system (common use)

  • greater legal control of the land, larger corporations, promoted innovations and productivity
• The traditional, open field system in feudal Europe

  Ox ploughing: long strips of land; Seasonal harvests: each farmerholds land strips in each section to have constant crop year on year; Mix of customary (informal) and legal rights over land
• advantages and disadvantages of ox ploughing


  • Advantages

  
  

  • Facilitated an economy of scale: 2 oxen needed to pull ploughs; building of drainage systems;

  
  

  • Rights for the landless: grazing rights, use of common pastures

  
  

  • Disadvantages

  
  

  • Impaired freedom for introducing innovation (collective decision)

  
  

  • Waste lands and common pastures were over-used

  
  

  • Scattered holdings with minimal facilities, high time/energy investments
• growing discontent led to Land enclosure acts - why? (1750-1850)


  Belief that open system prevented introduction of improvements, that common pastures were abused, that poor people were simply lazy/unproductive
• growing discontent: corn laws

  1846: import tariffs on corn were repealed; yet these tariffs helped maintain the (high) price of British grown wheat
• arguments pro liberalisation of corn laws

  • Availability of cheap bread from cheap, imported cornfor landless workers

  • Would allow for cheaper wages, boost economy,employment opportunities for the unemployed/landless poor
• two categories of people who lost out due to enclosure acts

  1. Landless people: no ownership rights yet made a living from open access; informal use of commons no longer tolerated, no compensation

  
  

  2. Smallholders: land allocated in compensation was often so small that it was of little use, and speedily sold

  • Also: high costs of hedging/fencing and forced to pay taxes to subsidise large holdings who employed people
• two main industries in wave 1: british leadership

  cotton textile (first power-driven machinery, early intro if steam engines)

  coal, iron, steel (steam engines facilitate mining)

  (more coal -> easier more iron)

  techno inno -> more efficient process for producing steel)
• at the turn of the century, did great britain remain the most urbanised country?

  yes
• wave 1: belgian industrialisation


  1. proto industrial productivity

  -> ghent - linen

  wallonia - metallurgy

  2. close trading partner of GB (cotton)

  3. resource rich + iron ores in close proximity to coal

  4. many rivers for easy transport

  5. strategically located
• Two axes in proto-industrialisation in be

  coal and mettalurgy: Le Borinage

  linen and textile: Ghent
• Be: timeline of coal and mettalurgy: le borinage


  1720: use first steam engine in coal mines

  French administration (1795-1814): large-scale coal mines in"Le Borinage" (S-W Mons); 1/2 of French annual output

  
  

  • Dutch administration (1814-1830): Cockerill-Sambre: Ironmelting plant, first blast furnace using coke (1827)

  
  

  • With support from King Willem I, Cockerill-family made theswitch from textile industry (Verviers)

  • Manufactured iron: rails, engines, and railway materials, rolling mills and forging mills
• linen and textile (ghent) timeline

  • 1789: industrial espionage: Lieven Bauwens steals a "spinning jenny" from Britain -----Ghent

  
  

  • Import of cheap cotton (via America)

  
  

  • Production of uniforms for French soldiers
• proto-industrialisation stage: massive investments in transport timeline

  1820s: building of canals (e.g., Brussels-Charleroi)

  
  

  1835: Europe's first steam-powered railway Brussels-Mechelen (to circumvent Dutchblockade of river Scheldt; context of Belgian independence)

  
  

  1843: extended railway network
• what happened to the belgian industry during the hungry 40s?

  textile industry collapsed

  boom of heavy industry in Wallonia and economic recovery from 1850s onwards
• second stage of belgian industrialisation


  • From textile and iron to production of steel (new production techniques)

  
  

  •The development of chemical industry
• Ernest Solvay (1838-1922) big thing


  how to produce soda ash with chemicals
• establishment of the "institut des sciences sociales" at ULB

  1894
• belgian compared to industrialisation


  first country on the european continent to industrialise and most intensively industrialised at the same time
• le chapelier law


  (1791) prohibition of trade guilds - no labour unions
• social unrest and reform: 1848 be


  Revolution in Belgium: minor impact;economic recovery under liberal government
• social unrest and reform be: 1866


  legalisation of trade unions
• social unrest and reform be: 1868


  brussels host conference of International Workingmens association
• social unrest and reform be: 1869

  violent repression against strikes in Seraing and Frameries
• social unrest and reform be: 1885


  Belgian workers party, but plural voting system limits its electoral success
• social unrest and reform be: 1886

  riots and violence - industrial legislation passed (limiting working hours, prohibiting child labour)
• social unrest and reform be: late 1890s


  electoral successes of socialist parties:

  
  

  • Belgium = one of the first countries in Europe to lauch a comprehensive system of social insurance

  • Sickness compensation (1894), voluntary "old-age" insurance (1900), unemployment insurance (1907)
• which european country was the only one to industrialise without railway?

  britain

  (sea ports and canal infrastructure)
• who were these follower economies in wave 2?

  regions rather than countries
• main difference between 1st and 2nd wave

  2nd wave characterised by a leading role from the gov (<.> private investors)

  growing chemical production and focus on motorisation
• france/germany in wave 2 compared to britain

  • Catching-up: adoption of British technology

  
  

  • Need for technical training (as opposed to "learning on the go")

  
  

  • Need for greater capital investments - yet less capital available

  
  

  • Need to invest in railway system to connect markets
• two aspects of the greater role of the state in Wave 2

  1. specialised investment banks

  2. technical education