anatomy

• The skull is made up of the cranium, which houses the brain, and the facial bones.
• The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column (vertebrae), rib cage (sternum and ribs), and thoracic cage (ribs).
• The appendicular skeleton consists of the upper limbs (humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges) and lower limbs (femur, tibia/fibula, patella, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges).
• Functions of the skeletal system

  • Support
  • Protect
  • Movement
  • Storage
  • Formation of blood cells
• Cortical bone


  Dense, stiff and strong
• Trabecular bone


  Porous, flexible and honeycomb like structure
• Diaphysis


  Hollow, tubular shaft of cortical bone
• Epiphysis


  Bulbous structure at ends of long bones composed of trabecular bone
• Bone growth


  Length and diameter during normal human development
• Bone remodelling


  Process of the removal of osteoclasts by the formation of osteoblasts
• Osteoblasts


  Responsible for bone remodelling
• Cranium bones


  • Frontal bone: forehead
  • Parietal bones: top and side of skull
  • Temporal bones: surround the ears
  • Occipital bones: back lower portion of skull
  • Sphenoid bone: butterfly shapes located within skull
• Facial bones


  • Palatine bones: roof the mouth
  • Zygomatic bones: cheekbones
  • Lacrimal bones: connect to orbits surrounding tear ducts
  • Nasal bones: bridge of nose
  • Vomer: bony nasal septum
  • Inferior concha: side of nasal cavity
  • Mandible: jawbone
• Atlas


  First cervical vertebrae (C1)
• Axis


  Second cervical vertebrae (C2)
• Cervical vertebrae


  • Allow for range of motion
• Thoracic vertebrae


  • Provide attachment for ribs and protects the thoracic organs
• Lumbar vertebrae


  • Bear the most weight for strength and stability
• Intervertebral discs


  Provide shock absorption, stability and protection of neural structures
• Joints of shoulder girdle

  • Sternoclavicular: articulates with sternum and clavicle
  • Acromioclavicular: articulates with the scapula and clavicle
  • Glenohumeral: is the shoulder joint which articulates the head of humerus and glenoid cavity of scapula
• Bones of the arm

  • Humerus
  • Radius
  • Ulna
• Joints of the arm

  • Glenohumeral joint: shoulder joint, ball and socket synovial joint
  • Humeroulnar joint elbow joint, hinge joint
  • Humeroradial joint: gliding joint
• Bones of the pelvis

  • Ilium
  • Ischium
  • Pubis
  • Sacrum
  • Coccyx
• Bones of the leg

  • Femur
  • Patella
  • Tibia
  • Fibula
  • Tarsals
  • Metatarsals
• Joints of the leg

  • Hip joint: ball and socket joint
  • Knee joint: hinge joint
  • Ankle joints: hinge joint
• Major categories of joints

  • Immovable joints
  • Slightly moveable joints
  • Freely moveable joints
• Examples of joint categories

  • Immovable joints: fibrous joints
  • Slightly moveable joints: cartilaginous joints
  • Freely moveable joints: synovial joints
• Types of diarthrodial joints

  • Hinge joints
  • Pivot joints
  • Ball and socket joints
  • Saddle joints
  • Gliding joints
• Joint structure governs movement capability
• Joint related structures


  • Tendons
  • Ligaments
  • Bursae
  • Articular cartilage
• Bones are classified based on shape as long or short, flat, irregular, sesamoid, or sutural.
• Surfactant


  To reduce surface tension and prevent lung collapse
• Surfactant


  To enhance air turbulence
• Surfactant


  To strengthen alveolar walls
• Surfactant


  To trap bacteria
• According to Boyle's Law, when the volume of a gas increases


  The pressure of the gas decreases
• Peripheral chemoreceptors


  To detect changes in blood oxygen levels
• Chronic sinusitis


  Pressure and pain around the forehead and eyes
• Sinuses most likely inflamed in chronic sinusitis

  The frontal sinuses
• Components of the respiratory system

  • Nasal cavity
  • Pharynx
  • Larynx
  • Trachea
  • Bronchi
  • Alveoli