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• Methods


  The specific techniques used to collect and analyse data, e.g. interviews, surveys, observations
• Methodology and methods are related to the research design
• Data Collection Procedure


  1. Setting boundaries (Sampling)

  2. Data Collection

  3. Establishing data management protocol
• Sampling


  The process by which a researcher identifies the representative of a population to be used in his/her study
• Areas of the research process where sampling decisions are applied

  • Case sampling
  • Sampling groups of cases
  • Material sampling
  • Sampling within the material
  • Presentational sampling
• Probability/Statistical Sampling


  • Used when an accurate representation of the entire population is needed in the sample
  • Gives all representatives of the entire population to be selected as a sample
  • Often used in quantitative research rather than qualitative research
• Types of Probability Sampling

  • Simple Random Sampling
  • Stratified Random Sampling
  • Cluster Sampling
  • Multistage Sampling
  • Systematic Sampling
• Non-probability Sampling


  • Used when the population can not/does not need to be sampled to represent the target population
  • Individuals do not have an equal chance of being sampled
  • Often used in qualitative research rather than quantitative research
• Observation/Fieldwork


  A method that is used when a participant can be observed directly
• Types of Observations


  • Participant
  • Nonparticipant
  • Systematic/Structured
  • Unstructured
  • Simple/Contrived
• Participant Observation


  • The researcher is immersed for prolonged periods of time in the setting where the participants/phenomenon is to be observed
• Non-participant Observation


  • The researcher is NOT immersed in the setting or the participants are not aware of the researcher's presence
• Structured or Systematic Observation


  • The researcher establishes specific rules for the observation and schedule, and the participant is informed ahead of time
• Unstructured Observation


  • There are no rules or guidelines set for the observation, allowing a more freeform or narrative means of data collection
• Simple and Contrived Observation

  • In simple observations, the researcher cannot change any factors in the setting
  • In contrived observations, the researcher can change or has control over some factors in the setting
• Observation Guide


  1. Determine the venue

  2. Prepare how you will enter the field

  3. Identify the things to observe

  4. Prepare means of data collection and what type of data you will collect
• Observation


  • Researcher can change or has control over some factors in the setting
  • Useful when the goal is to see how participants react to specified situations
• Observation Guide


  1. Determine the venue

  2. Prepare how you will enter the field

  3. Identify the things to observe

  4. Prepare means of data collection and what type of data you will collect

  5. Organize your data

  6. Define how long the observation is

  7. Determine when you will exit
• Interviews


  A method that is used when a participant can be observed directly
• Types of interviews


  • Structured
  • Semi-structured
  • Unstructured
• Structured interview


  • Researcher asks a list of predefined questions that only permits limited participant responses
• Semi-structured interview


  • Researcher begins with a set of key questions however the participant is given more freedom to explain certain topics
• Unstructured interview


  • Opposite of structured interviews, participants will be asked one general question and can explain their responses in depth
• Interview Guide


  1. Develop an interview framework by reviewing research objectives and questions

  2. Develop a guidepost in preparing your interview guide

  3. Prepare different types of questions

  4. Consider the setting, technical requirements, logistics, and practice interviews

  5. Identify a successful interviewee

  6. Plan what to do after an interview

  7. Consider some final tips for the interview
• Analysis of Documents and Audio-Visual Materials

  A method often used as a means of validating data collected through other methods
• Types of documents and materials

  • Public records
  • Personal documents
  • Artifacts
  • Video
  • Drawings/pictures
• Advantages of document analysis

  • Written documents are manageable and practical resources that are "non-reactive", which allows the researcher to review it multiple times
  • Documents are common and highly accessible since it comes in a variety of forms
  • It is a cost and time-efficient method of data collection
• Disadvantages of document analysis

  • Provides "indirect" information filtered through the views of interviewees
  • Provides information in a designated "place" rather than the natural setting
  • Researcher's presence may bias responses
  • Not all people are equally articulate and perceptive
• Process of Document Analysis

  1. Create a list of texts to explore

  2. Consider how texts will be accessed with attention to linguistics or cultural barriers

  3. Acknowledge and address biases

  4. Develop appropriate skills for research

  5. Consider strategies for ensuring credibility

  6. Know the data to look for

  7. Consider ethical issues
• Validation


  Refers to the integrity and application of the methods taken by the researcher, as well as the precision and relevance of his/her findings
• Types of validity


  • Content Validity
  • Construct validity
  • Criterion-based validity
  • Triangulation