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• Endogenic Process


  Any process that includes geological phenomena and processes originating within the Earth's surface

  
• Endogenic Processes


  • Responsible for any tectonic changes on the surface by releasing energy from within
  • Attributed to the leftover heat (measure to be at least 5000°–7000°C) within the planet's crust during its accretion 4.54 billion years ago

  
• Gravitational energy


  Built up over the years during the accretion period up to the point that the theoretical planet "Theia" crashed onto the juvenile Earth, creating the Moon
• Radioactive elements


  Disintegration of uranium-238, thorium-232, and potassium-40 buried deep within the Earth
• Magma


  Rocks in liquid to semi-liquid form, less dense than actual stones, found in specific locations on Earth

  
• Magma


  • Primarily composed of silicon dioxide, aluminum oxide, calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, iron oxide, and H2O, along with dissolved gases such as water vapor and carbon dioxide
  • Temperature ranges from 800°–1400°C

  
• Lava


  Flowing magma seen on the Earth's surface
• Viscosity of magma


  Generally depends on its silica content, gas content and temperature

  
• Decompression Melting


  A method of melting where the temperature is constant throughout while the pressure decreases
• Flux Melting


  A form of melting where volatiles (i.e. gaseous substances) are added into the magma

  
• Heat Transfer Melting


  A method of melting rocks with the introduction of pre-existing magma

  
• Partial Melting


  A method of melting rocks where certain minerals are dissolved once its eutectic temperatures are met
• Crystallization of Magma


  Rocks that have been extruded to the surface solidifies, recrystallizing to a solid form and forming grains

  
• Common Minerals


  • Quartz
  • Orthoclase
  • Plagioclase
  • Muscovite
  • Biotite
  • Amphibole
  • Pyroxene
  • Olivine
• Feldspar


  Includes plagioclase and orthoclase
• Mica


  Includes biotite and muscovite
• Igneous rocks


  Classified based on the distribution of silica, magnesia, and wustite, and grain size that dictates the rocks' textures

  
• Igneous intrusions


  Magma that never reaches the surface, including dikes, sills, and plutons
• Bowen's reaction series


  Crystallization sequence of minerals formed as magma cools

  
• Felsic rocks


  Rocks with higher silica content, as compared to its magnesia and wustite contents

  
• Mafic rocks


  Rocks with substantially higher magnesia and wustite contents than silica
• Ultramafic rocks


  Rocks made with different kinds of mafic rocks, ensuring that the silica content is very low compared to the two
• Intermediate rocks


  Combinations of felsic, mafic, and ultramafic rocks

  
• Volcanism


  Geological activity involving volcanoes, which are visible vents—manifestations of rock formation
• Volcanoes


  • Serve as the conduit for lava or molten rock within the Earth's surface
  • Lava exits through a funnel-shaped opening known as a crater
• Effusive eruptions


  Eruptions with dominant lava flow and formation of fountains and lakes
• Explosive eruptions


  Eruptions that eject other materials aside from lava, which can range from ash to large pyroclastics
• Shield volcanoes


  Form very broad domes with gentle slopes that cover a wide area, mostly made of alternating layers of basaltic lava and cinder accumulation
• Stratovolcanoes or composite volcanoes


  Made of alternating layers of lava and pyroclastics, generally made of felsic to intermediate rocks, building tall edifices
• Cinder cones


  Consist of small cones formed by lava spattering, usually made of cinders with mafic compositions
• Pahoehoe


  Lava with smooth surfaces, often forming tubes
• 'A'ā


  Lava with very coarse surfaces, appearing rubbly or broken rocks
• Obsidian


  A glassy material formed by rapidly cooling high-silica lava flow

  
• Pumice


  A high-silica lava material that has solidified into a rock, frothy and contains many air spaces inside it created by trapped gas bubbles
• Pyroclastics


  Fragmented materials (of varying grain sizes) released from a volcano
• Lapilli


  Pea- to marble-sized fragments of lava known to be a size classification of tephra

  
• Volcanic ashes


  Very fine particles consisting of glass shards, crystals, and fragments of existing rocks
• Pyroclastic flow deposits


  Aggregates of pyroclastic debris that flow on the slopes of volcanoes
• Ignimbrites


  Pyroclastic deposits mostly made of pumice
• Lahar


  Pyroclastic deposits mixed with water