psychopathology

• deviation from social norms

  social norms= unwritten rules followed by a a particular society

  😔 cultural relevitism

  😔hindsight bias
• ideal mental health


  -proposed by Jahoda who made 6 principles

  -consisted of characteristics/traits

  😃 positive and holistic

  😔 unrealistic criteria

  😔 cultural relevitism
• statistical infrequency


  -statistically uncommon on distribution

  😔 desirable traits

  😔 misdiagnose

  😔 labelling
• failure to function adequately

  = inhibility to cope with demands of environment/ live independently in society

  😔 individual differences

  😔 personal experiences
• social phobias


  = feeling of anxiety in social situation
• simple phobia


  = fear of specific object in the environment
• agoraphobia


  = fear of open/public spaces

  • caused bye simple or social phobia
• behavioural characteristic of phobia

  -avoidance

  -panic
• emotional characteristics of phobias

  -excessive/unreasonable fear

  -anxiety

  -panic
• cognitive characteristics of phobia

  -selective attention

  -irrational beliefs
• behavioural characteristics of depression

  -reduction in energy

  -disturbance in sleeping pattern
• emotional characteristics of depression

  -feeling of worthlessness

  -lack of interest/pleasure
• cognitive characteristics of depression

  -diminished ability to concentrate

  -focus on the negative
• behavioural character of OCD

  -compulsions

  -reduced anxiety
• emotional characters of OCD

  -anxiety

  -depression
• cognitive characteristics of OCD

  -obsessive thoughts

  -cognitve strategies
• phobias- classical conditioning

  • learning through the association of two stimuli
  • after association is formed the conditioned stimulus causes the conditioned response of fear
  • develop phobia
  • Watson and Rayner
• Watson and Rayner


  -investigate if fear response can be learnt through classical conditioning

  -struck metal bar with hammer behind little alberts head when rat was presented

  -whenever little Albert shown a white rat he cried

  -developed fear for other white objects= generalised fear to other objects
• phobias- operant conditioning

  • maintained phobia over time
  • negatively reinforced
  • behaviour is strengthened by the removal of unpleasant consequence
• eval of behavioural explanation of phobias

  😃 research evidence- little Albert

  😃 lead to development of treatments of phobias
• systematic desensitisation

  • counter-conditioning the maladaptive response by electing another response

  1. create a fear hierarchy from least to most fearful
  2. teach relaxation methods e.g. PNF
  3. slowly expose patient to each fear in a calm state

  reciprocal inhibition= inhibility to feel two emotions at the same time. e.g. cannot be panicked and relaxed at the same time
• eval of systematic desensitisation

  😃 ethical in nature compared to flooding

  😔 not effective for all phobias-some phobias have an evolutionary survival benefit e.g. fear of snakes
• flodding

  • patient is exposed to anxiety-inducing stimulus immediately
  • person is unable to avoid their phobia
  • through continuous exposer anxiety levels will eventually decrease.
  • extinction will occur as fear is time-limited response to an emotion that subsides
• eval of flooding


  😃 cost effective- takes much less time and can be done within one session.

  😔 symptom substitution- another fear may appear in the place of the counter-conditioned one

  😔 less effective on social phobias and agoraphobia- caused by irrational thinking not unpleasant experienced.better treatment would be behavioural treatments
• explaining depression- Becks Cognitive triad

  • negative/irrational view on ourselves, our future and the world around us

  negative schemas= negative 'package' of info about ourself and the world around us

  -developed through childhood in negative experiences

  
  

  Cognitive biases= more likely to focus on the negative aspects of a situation and ignore the positives

  -overgeneralisations(sweeping conclusion) and catastrophising(exaggerate minor setback)
• explaining depression- Ellis's ABC mode

  • explains what is needed for a 'good' mental health

  -activating event

  -beliefs= interpretation of the event

  rational interpretation or irrational

  -consequences

  rational-> healthy emotional outcome

  irrational-> unhealthy emotional outcome
• eval of cognitive explanation depression

  😃 application to therapy- develop treatments of depression

  😔 doesn't explaining origin of negative thoughts

  😔 alternative biological explanations- role of serotonin
• becks CBT- depression

  • identify negative thoughts in relation to becks triad
  • challenge irrational thoughts by discussing evidence for an against them
  • test validity of thoughts/ given homework to do themselves
• Ellis's REBT

  • developed ABC model to include dispute and effective
  • therapist dispute negative thoughts and replace with new beliefs and attitudes

  logical dispute= questions the logic of the thoughts

  empirical dispute= seek evidence for the thoughts
• eval of cognitive approach of depression

  😔 requires motivation to attend sessions . alternative solution of antidepressants or both even

  😃 research evidence, March et al - Cat as effective as antidepressants, looked at effectiveness of individually and together 86% of both improved, 81% individually
• genetic explanation of OCD


  SERT gene

  • linked to to the release of serotonin and the transport of the neurotransmitter SERT. transportation issues causes lower serotonin...

  COMPT gene

  • regulates the transportation of dopamine
  • higher levels/variation= more common with OCD
• neural explanation(brain structure) of OCD

  Basal ganglia

  • closer of neurons at base of forebrain
  • involved in multiple of processes e.g. coordination of movement
  • head injuries to this area= OCD

  Orbitalfrontal Cortex

  • converts sensory info into thoughts and actions
  • PET scans found high levels of activity in those with OCD
  • increases conversion of sensory-> actions = compulsions
• eval of bio approach on OCD

  😃 family studies- Lewis, 37% of patients with OCD had parents with the disorder and 21% had siblings who suffered

  😃Nestat et al- found fist degree relative have 5x more chance of getting OCD
• phobia= irrational fear to a certain stimulus
• simple phobia= specific phobias

  • specific stimulus in the environment
  • animal phobias, injury phobias, situational phobias and natural phobias
• social phobias= irrational response to social situations

  • performance phobias, interaction phobias and generalised phobias
• Agoraphobia= fear of open/public spaces

  • may experience panic attacks and anxiety
  • caused by simple phobias and/or social phobias