pychology approaches

• In the 17th century, Descartes suggested that the mind and the body represented a dualism, and that the two interact in different ways to produce different behaviours and thoughts. This was the basis for the nature versus nurture debate
• Psychology = “The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes and how these are affected by internal and external factors”
• • Science = “The pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the natural and 1 social world, following a systematic methodology based on evidence”.
• • Science = “The pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the natural and 1 social world, following a systematic methodology based on evidence”.
• introspection features 3 conditions: The mentality condition (aims to generate beliefs about mental states and events), the first-person condition (aims to generate beliefs about the individual’s own mind) and the temporal proximity condition (generates beliefs and describes the individual’s current mental life).
• Wundt isolated conscious thoughts into basic structures of thoughts, processes and images, in a process called structuralism.
• Wuntd's method of data recording was highly scientific e.g. the same stimulus was used each time, allowing for replication under standardised conditions, hence producing reliable data.
• Skinner disagreed with the subjective nature of introspection, in which the findings differed greatly from individual to individual, making it difficult to establish general laws and unifying principles of behaviour and cognition
• • The behaviourist approach is an approach to explaining behaviour which suggests that all behaviour is acquired and maintained through classical and operant conditioning. Hence, only behaviour which can be objectively measured and observed is studied
• • From a behaviourist perspective, the basic laws governing learning are the same across both non-humans and humans. Therefore, non-human animals can replace humans in behaviourist experimental research.
• Classical Conditioning = A type of learning which occurs through associations made between the unconditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus. Before conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces the unconditioned response (UCR). During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the UCS, producing an UCR. After conditioning, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus, producing the conditioned response
• pavlov part 1: Before conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (food) produced an unconditioned response (salivation).
• pavlov part 2: During conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus was repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus (a bell), to produce the same unconditioned response of salivation.
• pavlov part 3: An association was made between the unconditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus.
• pavlov part 4:After conditioning, the neutral stimulus became the conditioned stimulus, producing the conditioned response of salivation.
• Operant conditioning = A type of learning where behaviour is acquired and maintained based on its consequences. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of the observed behaviour being repeated, whilst punishment (an unpleasant consequence of behaviour) decreases this likelihood.
• There are two types of reinforcement - positive and negative
• Positive reinforcement occurs when we carry out a behaviour to receive a reward
• negative reinforcement occurs when we carry out a behaviour to avoid negative consequences
• Skinner’s Box = Skinner demonstrated, using a rat, the mechanisms of positive and negative reinforcement
• skinners box: Positive reinforcement was shown when the rats pressed down on a lever to receive food as a reward, and subsequently learnt to repeat this action to increase their rewards
• skinners box: Negative reinforcement was shown when the rat learnt to press down on the lever to avoid the unpleasant consequence of an electric shock.
• little albert was scared of rats, extinction of Little Albert’s phobia when the loud bang /conditioned stimulus no longer produced the conditioned response of crying (when the loud bang was not paired with the sight of the rat)
• Behaviourist strength: Scientific Rigour

  In an attempt to objectively and systematically collect reliable data, the behaviourist approach makes use of highly scientific research methods, particularly the laboratory experiment
• Behaviourist approach

  • Strictly-controlled conditions reduce and control for the effects of confounding and extraneous variables, increasing the reliability and internal validity of the findings (as these are more likely to be replicated when research is conducted under the same conditions)
  • By focusing on behaviour which is observable and can be measured, the behaviourist approach increases the scientific credibility of psychology
• behaviourist approach AO3: Real-Life Applications = An increased understanding of classical and operant conditioning has led to the development of treatments and therapies for serious mental disorders. For example, the prison system . Therefore, behaviourist principles have had positive impacts on the lives of many.
• behaviorist AO3:Environmental Determinism = The behaviourist approach sees all behaviour as the product of past reinforcement contingencies, leaving no room for free will or conscious choices
• behaviourist AO3: done on animals therefore doesnt allow for difference between conscious humans and animals. hence lacks external validity and cannot be generalised
• behaviourist AO3: ethical issues, with abuse of animals, little alberts therapy did not protect him from psychological harm, little albert wasnt given the right to witdraw
• Social learning theory (SLT) suggests that learning occurs both directly, through classical and operant conditioning, and indirectly, through vicarious reinforcement.
• SLT assumes that learning occurs through the following stages: An observer identifies themselves with a desirable role model. This role model displays or models a specific behaviour, which is imitated by the observer. The likelihood that the observed behaviour will be imitated is increased if the role model is seen to be ‘vicariously reinforced’ or rewarded
• Role Model = A person with whom the observer identifies with. The role model is usually attractive, has high social status, is of a similar age and the same gender to the observer. This model can exert influence indirectly by not being physically present in the environment but, for example, seen in the media.
• Identification = The process by which an observer relates to/ associates themselves with a role model and aspires to become more like that role model.
• Vicarious reinforcement = A type of indirect learning which occurs when an observer sees their role model being rewarded for displaying a certain behaviour. The observer is then motivated to imitate this behaviour, in an effort to receive the same reward.#
• Mediational processes = Cognitive processes which mediate/intervene between stimulus and response. The 4 mediational processes are: Attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation.
• Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study (Bandura, Ross and Ross, 1961) - 36 boys and 36 girls, aged between 3 and 6 years old, were tested
• banduras conditions: three experimental groups, 3 with the first being exposed to real-life aggressive models, a second group observing the same models displaying aggressive acts on film and a third group viewing an aggressive cartoon character
• bandura: The researchers found that the children who’d observed an aggressive role model behaved more aggressively themselves towards the Bobo doll compared to the non-aggressive role model control group. Links can be made to the process of social learning theory.
• Bandura's Bobo Doll experiment

  Ignores the biological differences between boys and girls
• Social learning theory

  Suggests that we learn from experience, and so ignores other biological or psychological factors, thus adopting environmental determinism