Geography Physical Case Studies

• A – Level Physical Case Studies
• Topics


  • Water and Carbon
  • Shrewsbury
  • Mitigation Strategies
• Kyoto Agreement


  • Signed in 1997 but didn't come into force till 2005
  • Legally bound developed nations to reduce their CO2 emissions
  • Did not bind NEEs such as China or India to make changes (China is now the biggest emitter of CO2) and the USA (2nd biggest emitter of CO2) withdrew from the agreement
• Paris Agreement


  • Entered into law in 2016
  • Binds all nations to make required cuts to keep warming below 2C and provides financial assistance to the countries suffering most from the impacts
  • All but USA, Syria and Nicaragua have signed the agreement
• Factors causing change in the Amazon - Human


  • Balbina Dam, Manaus, Brazil (land use change)
  • McDonalds, shift to pastoral agriculture, Brazil (agriculture)
  • Urbanisation, Manaus, Brazil (land use change)
  • Water abstraction, Brazil
• Balbina Dam, Manaus, Brazil

  • When built it flooded 2,360km2 of the rainforest
  • Added a water store to the area while the required deforestation reduced a carbon store
  • Recent figures suggest that Balbina's reservoir is now 4,447 km2 in area due to sedimentation over the 20 years of the dam's operation
  • Vegetation has been left to decompose in the reservoir – increasing carbon transfers to the atmosphere
• McDonalds, shift to pastoral agriculture, Brazil


  • McDonald's has admitted to farming cattle on ex-rain forest land contributing more to the excess methane in the environment
  • The use of farmland in these regions has forced the local vendors and farmers to move to other areas and cut down even more trees
  • There are estimated to be over 100,000 cattle ranches in the Amazon, and these contribute also to the decrease in water retention in the land, causing a lack of water supply to many indigenous tribes within the rain forest
  • Natural rainforest soil can hold between 4 and 9kg of CO2 per m2, soil used for pastoral farming can only hold 1kg of CO2/m2
• Urbanisation, Manaus, Brazil


  • Between 1970 and 2003 the population grew by 300,000
  • More population leads to more deforestation
  • The rapid urbanisation of Manaus is considered to have increased precipitation by 0.8mm per hectare
• Pressure on water resources in the Amazon river basin is very low, as a result of a combination of high availability of water and low demand due to low population density (ANA, 2009). Considering a population of 28 million, the water resources per capita are equal to 255 000 m3 per year or 700 000 litres/day.
• In Brazil, the water withdrawal in the Amazon basin in 2006 was an estimated 2 108 million m3, which represents 3.6 percent of the total withdrawal of the country. Agriculture and livestock accounted for 53 percent of the total water withdrawal in the basin, municipalities for 33 percent and industry for 14 percent (ANA, 2009).
• Droughts in the Amazon

  • Lead to fewer trees, which reduced the level of rainfall
  • The Amazon rainforest is so large that it has an important impact on the world's climate
  • Deforestation there could cause more rain in the UK
• A team of scientists studied the effects of two drought events, in 2005 and 2010, that affected large swathes of forest. "Our plots across the basin indicate that this forest became carbon neutral, so they were not taking up more carbon than they were losing," he explained. "This was regardless of whether the plots had experienced a drought or not. "The second thing that we found was an impact in 2010 on the growth of trees. This did not happen in 2005. Those trees that had the most intense precipitation anomalies also had lower growth. "Mortality was also affected. We saw mortality go up and growth go down, which - again - we did not see in 2005.
• Seasons in the Amazon Rainforest


  • Divided into the dry season and the wet season, each lasting about six months
  • In the tropical areas just south of the Equator, the wettest part of the wet season occurs between December and May
  • During the wet season, the Amazon Rainforest receives 183 – 366 cm rain
  • During the dry season, the Amazon receives very little rainfall, only an average of 15cm of rain from June through August
• Deforestation in the Amazon

  • Is changing the Amazon's climate and seasonal cycles
  • During the dry season, deforested areas get hotter than untouched sections of rainforest
  • When the warm air rises, clouds form, and when clouds form, rain falls
• Studies have been conducted into the impact this seasonality has on the rainforest. When they measured the flow of carbon dioxide into and out of the forest they reported seeing "the ecosystem storing carbon during the dry season,". Either photosynthesis increased during the dry season, or processes that release carbon dioxide, like decay and respiration, decreased. Additionally, while tropical cloudiness had declined, tropical vegetation had grown greener. These results suggested that tropical forest growth was limited not by dry-season water shortages, but by rainy season "sunlight shortages."
• 2014 Floods, Rio Negro, Brazil

  • For more than a month, Careiro da Varzea in the Brazilian state of Amazonas has been under water in one of the worst floods on record
  • Since the end of 2013, heavy rains have pushed the Rio Negro, which flows into the Amazon, to emergency levels
  • Experts say the water is expected to remain until the middle of July before eventually subsiding
  • An unexpected change in weather systems means more water vapour and consequently more rain have stayed in the Amazon, causing river levels to rise
  • Science says that one of the clearest indicators as well as one of the clearest consequences of climate change is an increase in frequency of extreme weather events
• CASE STUDY: HIC Earthquake – L'Aquila, Italy 2009
• Causes


  • Movement of the Apennine fault system
  • Measured 6.0 on the Richter Scale
• Primary Impacts


  • Many historical buildings collapsed
  • Between 3000 and 10 000 buildings destroyed
  • Newly opened hospital wing collapsed as it had not been built to earthquake proof standards
  • Caused $16 billion of damages
• Secondary Impacts


  • 289 people died
  • 40 000 people made homeless
  • British foreign office advised against travel to the area
  • A Landslide was triggered in the nearby hills causing a burst water pipe
• Short term response


  • Immediate search and rescue
  • Tents were set up to provide emergency shelter for people who lost their homes
  • All mobile phone companies provided people with free minutes
  • Gas and electricity bills were suspended for two months
• Long term response


  • Financial aid was given by many EU countries to help rebuild the historical buildings
  • An investigation was held into the building code regulation violations and scientists were put on trial as to whether the should have predicted the earthquake
  • Students were given free fees for three years to try to stop the fall in numbers
• Background


  • GDP = $32 000 per capita
  • Population Density = 206 people per km2
  • Literacy rate = 99%
• CASE STUDY: LIC Earthquake – Nepal 2015
• Causes


  • The collision of the Eurasian and Indo-Australisian plate in the Himalayas
  • Measured 7.9 on the Richter Scale
• Primary Impacts


  • 19 000 injured
  • Up to 50% of GDP was lost - £10 million
  • 1000s of homes and buildings destroyed including many UNESCO sites of cultural significance
• Secondary Impacts


  • 9 000 people died
  • Triggered a large number of landslides and avalanches – including an avalanche that killed 19 people at Everest Base Camp
  • 3.5 million people made homeless and many more chose to sleep in the street due to fear
  • Many women and girls were forced into prostitution to earn money
• Short term response


  • Aid workers and money sent from around the world
  • Immediate search and rescue was set up
  • Tent city set up in Kathmandu
  • Temporary school's set up
• Long term response


  • People were still sleeping in tents 6 months later
  • Some investment has been made on earthquake proof technology and education
  • The government was heavily criticised for their slow response
• Background


  • GDP = $835 per capita
  • Population Density = 202 people per km2
  • Literacy rate = 64%
• CASE STUDY: HIC Earthquake – Christchurch 2009
• Causes


  The Pacific plate and Indo-Australian plate move past each other on a conservative margin. This was a blind fault meaning tit was previously unknown
• Primary Impacts


  • 185 people were killed in the earthquake. Over half of the deaths occurred in the six-storey Canterbury Television (CTV) Building, which collapsed and caught fire in the quake.
  • 3,129 people injured
  • Total estimated cost had ballooned to $40 billion
  • Significant liquefaction affected the eastern suburbs, producing around 400,000 tonnes of silt
• Secondary Impacts


  • Psychological impacts
  • Damage to roads through liquefaction made it difficult for people and emergency services to move around
  • Christchurch could no longer host Rugby World Cup matches so lost the benefits, e.g. tourism and income
  • Schools had to amalgamate
• Short term response


  • Rescue crews from all over the world came to help. Aid money poured in – Australia gave $5 million (Aus $) in aid.
  • Domestic help was available - The Farmy Army was made up of 800 farmers who brought their farm machines and muscle to help clean up the city.
  • The most vulnerable people were cared for and people were kept safe away from dangerous buildings.
  • Chemical toilets were provided for 30,000 residents
• Long term response


  • Water and sewerage was restored for all residents by August,
  • Roads and houses were cleared of silt from liquefaction by August and 80% of roads & 50% of footpaths were repaired,
  • Many Non-government organisations including Save the Children helped with long term recovery efforts
  • Canterbury Earthquake Recovery Authority was created to organise the rebuild of the region. It had special powers to change planning laws and regulations.
• Background


  • GDP per capita = $42 000 (US)
  • Population Density = 18 people per km2
  • Literacy rate = 99%
• CASE STUDY: LIC Earthquake – Haiti 2010
• Causes


  Movement of the Enriquillo Fault between the Gongav platelet and the Caribbean Plate (conservative margin)
• Primary Impacts


  • 300 000 injured
  • $10 billion damage
  • Schools, hospitals and prisons destroyed
  • Homes destroyed
  • Powerlines collapsed
  • Water system totally destroyed