Biology review

• Nucleus


  • Contains the cell's genetic material and is the control center of the cell
• Mitochondria


  • The powerhouse of the cell, responsible for producing ATP through cellular respiration
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)


  • Divided into rough ER (with ribosomes, involved in protein synthesis) and smooth ER (involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification)
• Golgi Apparatus


  • Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery to other organelles
• Lysosomes


  • Contain digestive enzymes to break down waste materials and cellular debris
• Cytoskeleton


  • Provides structural support and shape to the cell and facilitates movement
• Plasma Membrane


  • A selectively permeable barrier that controls the entry and exit of substances
• Ribosomes


  • Sites of protein synthesis, found floating in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough ER
• Fluid Mosaic Model


  Describes the cell membrane as a dynamic and flexible structure composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, cholesterol, glycoproteins, and glycolipids
• Extracellular Fluid (ECF)


  The body fluid outside of cells, consisting of interstitial fluid and plasma
• Biological significance of ECF


  • Provides a medium for the exchange of substances between the cells and the blood
  • Maintains the appropriate environment for cellular function
  • Facilitates the transport of nutrients, waste products, and other molecules
• Diffusion


  The movement of solutes from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration until equilibrium is reached
• Osmosis


  The diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration
• Active Transport


  The movement of solutes against their concentration gradient, requiring energy (ATP)
• Macronutrients


  Required in large amounts for energy and growth (e.g., carbohydrates, proteins, fats)
• Micronutrients


  Required in smaller amounts for various biochemical functions (e.g., vitamins, minerals)
• Enzymes that break down carbohydrates

  • Amylase (salivary and pancreatic)
  • Maltase
  • Sucrase
  • Lactase
• Enzymes that break down proteins

  • Pepsin
  • Trypsin
  • Chymotrypsin
  • Peptidases
• Enzymes that break down fats

  • Lipase
• CHOH could refer to a general alcohol group (R-CHOH) or a specific compound like methanol (CH3OH)
• HO is typically part of a hydroxyl group (-OH) in alcohols or carboxylic acids
• Он is possibly a misspelling of "OH"
• OH represents a hydroxyl group
• снОн likely represents ethanol (C2H5OH) if transliterated from another language
• 500 m is not clear in this context, might need more specific details
• Chemicals/Secretions that aid digestion

  • Saliva
  • Bile
  • Pepsinogen
  • Mucus
  • Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)
  • Pancreatic Amylase
  • Lipase
  • Trypsinogen
  • Chymotrypsinogen
  • Carboxypeptidase
  • Gastrin
  • Secretin
  • Cholecystokinin (CCK)
• Saliva


  Softens and lubricates food; dissolves food particles for tasting; contains salivary amylase to break polysaccharides into disaccharides; contains bicarbonate ions to control oral pH
• Bile


  Emulsifies fats to increase surface area for lipase action; aids in digestion and absorption of lipids
• Pepsinogen


  Inactive form of pepsin; converted to pepsin by stomach acid; pepsin breaks down proteins into peptides
• Mucus


  Protects lining of GI tract; lubricates food passage
• Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)


  Lowers pH to activate pepsinogen to pepsin; denatures proteins; kills pathogens
• Pancreatic Amylase


  Breaks down carbohydrates into simple sugars
• Lipase


  Breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol
• Trypsinogen


  Converted to trypsin in the small intestine; breaks down proteins into smaller peptides
• Chymotrypsinogen


  Converted to chymotrypsin; breaks down proteins into smaller peptides
• Carboxypeptidase


  Breaks down peptides into amino acids by removing terminal amino acids
• Gastrin


  Stimulates secretion of HCl and pepsinogen; increases gastric motility
• Secretin


  Stimulates bicarbonate secretion from pancreas; inhibits gastric secretion
• Cholecystokinin (CCK)


  Stimulates bile and enzyme secretion
• Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)


  Stomach (Parietal Cells)