Psychopathology

• Definitions of abnormality


  definitions :

  • Satistical infrequency
  • deviation from social norma
  • failure to function adequatley
  • deviation from ideal mental health
• Satistical infrequency

  Individual has a less common characteristic (below the average) e.g lower iq
• Deviation from social norms

  Behaviour displayed that is not accepted by the standards of society:

  • norms specific to the culture we live in = homosexuality before and now + diff cultures accept / reject
  • antisocial personality disorder = impulsive + aggressive ... do not conform to moral standards
• A03 of satistical infrequency positive

  + real world application :

  • clincal practice + formal diagnosis
  • e.g intellectual disability disorder (iq below 70)

  value of satistical infrequency criterion useful is diagnostic + assessment process
• A03 of satistical infrequency negative

  - unsual characteristics can be positive :

  • iq above 130
  • unusal at one end of a spectrum ≠ abnormal

  never sufficient as the sole basis for defining abnormality
• A03 of deviation from social norms positive

  + real world application :

  • clinical practice
  • diagnosis of schizopytal personality fisorder

  value in psychiatry
• A03 of deviation from social norms negative


  - cultural + situational relativism :

  • variability between social norms in diff cultures + situations
  • one cultural group can call someone “abnormal” due to their standards
  • e.g hearing voices (ancestors) abnormal / normal in certain cultures
  • situationally = deceitful behaviour a norm in context lf coorprate deal making ≠ in family context

  difficult to judge deviation of norms across cultures and situation
• Failure to function adequatley


  Unable to cope with demands of everyday life :

  • maintain hygeine
  • maintain nutrition
  • maintain relationships

  
• Deviation from ideal mental health

  Individual doesnt meet a set of criteria for good mental health (jahoda) :

  • self actualise
  • cope with stress
  • good self esteem
  • independent
  • enjoy leisure
• A03 of FFA postive

  + represents a threshold for help :

  • everyone had symptoms of mental disorder to some degree
  • ignore symptoms
  • once ffa reached people get proffesional help
• A03 of FFA negative

  - discrimination :

  • labels non standard lifestyle choices
  • hard to label FFA (choose to deviate?)
  • People live alternative lifestyles / high risk leisure activites

  people who choose to live by unusual choices at risk of being labelled abnormal
• A03 of deviation of ideal MH strength

  Comprehensive definition :

  • Highly comprehensive
  • Distinguishes mental health and mental disorder
  • mental health can be discussed meaningfully who might take different theoretical views

  provides a checklist where we can discuss psychological issues with professionals
• A03 of deviation from ideal MH weakness

  Culture bound :

  • diff elements not equally applicable across a range of cultures
  • context of US and Europe
  • concept of self actualisation : self indulgent
  • variation in value of independence

  difficult to apply to all cultures
• phobia def 


  An irrational fear of object or situation
• DSM system

  Classify + Diagnosing mental health problems

  Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder
• behaviour characteristics of phobias

  Panic - Crying , screaming , running away

  • in children : freezing , clinging , tantrum

  Avoidance - prevent coming into contact with fear

  • makes it hard to go about daily life

  Endurance - Choose to remain in room and keep an eye on it rather than leaving
• emotional characteristics of phobias

  Anxiety - Unpleasant state of high arousal

  • prevent relaxing
  • difficult experience positive emotion
  • long term

  Fear - immediate + extremely unpleasant response

  • more intense but shorter periods

  Emotional response is unreasonable - emotion much greater than normal and disproportionate to threat posed
• Cognitive characteristics of phobias

  Selective attention :

  • hard to look away from stimulus
  • best chance to react to a threat
  • not useful as fear is irrational

  irrational belief :

  • unfounded thoughts
  • increases pressure to perform well in social situations

  cognitive distortions :

  • perceptions inaccurate and unrealistic
• different categories of phobias

  specific - object , animal , body part , situation

  social anxiety - phobia of social situations

  agoraphobia - fear of outside / public space
• different categories of depression

  major depressive - severe but short term

  persistent depressive - long term + recurring

  disruptive mood dysregulation - childhood temper tantrums

  premenstural dysphoric - mood prior / during menstruation
• behavioural characteristics of depression

  activity level :

  • reduced level of energy (lethargic)
  • withdraw from work + education + social life
  • opposite of lethargic = psychomotor agitation
  • pacing up and down room

  disruption to eating and sleep :

  • insomnia
  • appetite increases and decreases
  • weight gain / loss

  agression + self harm :

  • irritable
  • verbally / physically aggressive
  • self directed aggression
• emotional characteristics of depression

  lowered mood :

  • feeling worthless + empty

  anger :

  • experience more negative > positive emotions
  • not limited to sadness

  Lowered self esteem :

  • likings themselves less than usual
  • sense of self-loathing
• cognitive characteristics of depression

  Poor concentration :

  • unable to stick to task they usually would
  • hard to make decisions they would normally find straight forward
  • interfere with individuals work

  attnending + dwelling on negative :

  • inclined to pay attention to negative aspects
  • ignore positive
  • bias recalling unhapppy events

  absolutist thinking :

  • black and white thinking
  • exaggerating how bad the situation is
• Catergories of OCD

  OCD - obsessions (reccuring thoughts / images) + compulsions (repetitive behaviour)

  trichotillomania - compulsive hair pulling

  hoarding behaviour - compulsive gathering of possessions and inability to part with anything (regardless of value)

  Excoriation - compulsive skin picking
• Behavioural characteristics of OCD

  compulsions are repetitive :

  • compelled to repeat behaviour

  compulsions reduce anxiety :

  • show compulsive behaviour alone
  • no obsessions + general sense of irrational anxiety
  • behaviours performed in attempts to manage anxiety
  • handwashing = response to obsessive fear of germs

  avoidance :

  • attempt to reduce anxiety by keeping away from situations that trigger it
  • e.g wash hands compulsively attempt to come into contact with germs
  • lead to people avoiding ordinary situations
• emotional characteristics of OCD

  anxiety and distress :

  • unpleasant emotional experience (powerful anxiety)
  • urge to repeat behaviour creates anxiety

  accompanying depression :

  • anxiety accompanied by low mood and lack of enjoyment in activities
  • compulsive behaviour brings relief from anxiety (temporary)

  guilt and disgust :

  • irrational guilt (minor moral issues)
  • disgust directed to smth external (dirt or self)
• cognitive characteristics of OCD

  obsessive thoughts :

  • recurring unpleasant thoughts
  • e.g contaminated by germs

  cognitive coping strategies :

  • respond by adopting coping strategies
  • e.g religious person tormented by obsessive guilt responds via praying
  • helps manage anxiety but can make person feel abnormal to others
  • distracts from everyday tasks

  insight to excessive anxiety :

  • aware of obsessions + compulsions not being rational
  • Helps in diagnosis of OCD rather than a mental disorder
  • experience catastrophic thoughts + worst case scenario
  • hypervigilant (constant alertness + attention)
• Behaviourist approach to explaining phobias

  2 process model : classical / operant conditioning
• classical conditioning


  Little Albert :

  • whenever rat was presented to Albert loud bang was created
  • rat was associated with feeling of fright created by bang
  • now displayed fear whenever shown the rat
  • conditioning generalised to similar objects
  • same reaction to all objects
• operant conditioning 


  reinforcement / punishment :

  • When we avoid avoid stimulus
  • escape fear +anxiety we would’ve experienced
  • reinforces avoidance behaviour
  • phobia maintained
• A03 of 2 process model strength

  real world application :

  • exposure therapy (systematic desensitisation)
  • Idea of maintenance of phobia when avoided
  • avoidance prevented : no reinforcement of anxiety reduction
  • avoidance declines = phobia cured
• A03 of 2 process model weakness

  Cognitive aspect :

  • phobia not simply avoidance issues
  • irrational belifs also cause phobias
  • Doesn’t offer adequate explanation of phobic cognition

  doesn’t fully explain symptoms of phobias
• behavioural approach to treating phobias

  Systematic desensitisation

  flooding
• systematic desensitisation 


  behavioural therapy :

  • new reponse to phobic stimulus learned
  • counterconditioning

  1 .anxiety hierarchy :

  • list of situations related to phobia (least to most frightening)

  2 . relaxation :

  • impossible to be relaxed/scared at the same time therefore one emotion prevents the other (reciprocal inhibition)
  • mediation , mental imagery ,breathing exercises

  3 . Exposure :

  • exposed to phobia in a relaxed state
  • starting from bottom of hierarchy
  • successful when patient can stay relaxed when encounter the top of the hierarchy
• Flooding

  Immediate exposure :

  • eliminates avoidance behaviour
  • realises phobic stim is harmless (extinction)
  • conditioned stimulus no longer produces conditioned response (fear)
  • not ethical however informed consent is given
• A03 of systematic desensitisation

  Evidence for effectiveness :

  • Gilroy et al
  • 2 groups one has SD , one control
  • SD group were less fearful of phobia after 3 45 min sessions

  concluding the idea of SD helpful for people with phobias
• A03 of flooding

  + cost effective :

  • clinical therapy in general costs a lot
  • flooding can work in 1 session
  • same results as 10 sessions of SD

  - traumatic ;

  • provokes tremendous anxiety
  • ethical issue however informed consent obtained
  • dropout rates are higher
  • therapists avoid this method
• 2 components of cognitive approach to explaining depression

  • becks negative triad
  • ellis ABC model
• becks negative triad

  people are more vulnerable to depreesion due to 3 reasons :

  • faulty info processing = ignore positives and only see negatives
  • negative self schema = interpret all info about themselves in a negative manner
  • negative triad
• 3 parts of the negative triad

  - negative view of the world : “world is cruel”

  - negative view of future : “the economy wont get better”

  - negative view on self : “I’m a failure”