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• Friction


  A force that opposes relative motion between two surfaces in contact
• Friction

  • Depends on the nature and smoothness of the surfaces
  • Depends on how hard the surfaces press together
• Static Friction

  The force required to start moving an object at rest
• Sliding Friction

  The force required to keep an object moving at a constant speed. It's usually less than static friction
• Friction can be both beneficial and disadvantageous
• Rolling Friction

  Occurs when an object rolls over another. It's less than sliding friction, hence it's used in machines with ball bearings
• Fluid Friction or Drag

  Opposes the motion of objects through fluids (liquids and gases)<|>Depends on the object's speed, shape, and the fluid's nature<|>Special shapes are used to minimize fluid friction
• Increasing Friction

  1. Making a surface rough

  2. Using treaded soles or tires

  3. Applying brake pads
• Decreasing Friction

  1. Using lubricants

  2. Using rolling elements

  3. Giving objects special shapes for movement in fluids
• Friction

  A force that opposes relative motion between two surfaces in contact
• Friction


  • Depends on the nature and smoothness of the surfaces
  • Depends on how hard the surfaces press together
• Static Friction

  The force required to start moving an object at rest
• Sliding Friction

  The force required to keep an object moving at a constant speed. It's usually less than static friction
• Friction can be both beneficial and disadvantageous
• Benefits of Friction

  • Allows us to walk, hold objects, write, etc.
  • Can be increased for better grip (e.g. soles of shoes and tires are grooved)
• Disadvantages of Friction

  • Causes wear and tear
  • Causes energy loss as heat
  • Can be reduced using lubricants
• Rolling Friction


  Occurs when an object rolls over another. It's less than sliding friction, hence it's used in machines with ball bearings
• Fluid Friction or Drag

  Opposes the motion of objects through fluids (liquids and gases)<|>Depends on the object's speed, shape, and the fluid's nature<|>Special shapes are used to minimize fluid friction
• Increasing Friction

  1. Making a surface rough

  2. Using treaded soles or tires

  3. Applying brake pads
• Decreasing Friction

  1. Using lubricants

  2. Using rolling elements

  3. Giving objects special shapes for movement in fluids
• Secular State


  A state that does not consider anyone's religion as an official religion and treats all its citizens equally, regardless of religion
• Indian Secularism

  • Equal honour and regard for all faiths by the nation
  • No prejudice sponsored by the state between residents on religion basis
  • India follows the policy of non-interference in the functioning of any faith by the state
  • The 42nd Constitutional Amendment states that India is a secular country, with no relationship between religion and state
  • India pays respects to all religions but it did not recognize any national religion
• Separation of religion from the State

  • Prevents the domination of one religion over another
  • Protects the freedom of individuals to exit from their religion, embrace another religion or have the freedom to interpret religious teachings differently
• Secularism is separating religion from the power of the state
• Majority religious group having access to State power

  Could use this power and financial resources to discriminate against and persecute persons of other religions
• Secularism is vital to separate the power of the state from religious practices to prevent the domination of one religion over another and to protect the fundamental rights of all citizens
• Indian secularism allows the State to intervene in religious affairs, as seen in the example of banning untouchability
• <b>Features of Indian Secularism</b>

  • Equal honour and regard for all faiths • No prejudice sponsored by the state • Protection of freedom of conscience • Equality of all citizens
• <b>Secular State</b>


  A state that does not consider any one religion as an official religion and treats all citizens equally
• Indian Secularism - Prevention of Religious Domination

  Distances itself from religion, practices non-interference with some exceptions (e.g. Sikh turbans), and intervenes to prevent discriminatory practices (e.g. untouchability)
• Objectives of a Secular State

  • Non-domination of one religious community over another • Equal treatment within each religious community • Respect for individual religious freedom • Refraining from promoting or enforcing any particular religion