Interviews complete

• Structured interviews


  Very similar to a questionnaire, the interviewer is given strict instructions on how to ask the questions. The interview is conducted in the same standardised way each time, asking each interviewee precisely the same questions, word for word, in the same order, tone of voice and so on.
• Unstructured or informal interviews (also called discovery interviews)


  Like a guided conversation, the interviewer has complete freedom to vary the questions, their wording, order and so on from one interview to the next, pursuing whatever line of questioning seems appropriate at the time, asking follow-up questions or probing more deeply.
• Semi-structured interviews


  Lie in between structured and unstructured interviews. Each interview has the same set of questions in common, but the interviewer can also probe for more information.
• Group interviews


  Interviews with up to a dozen or so people being interviewed together.
• Focus groups


  A form of group interview in which the researcher asks the group to discuss certain topics and records their views.
• Strengths of group interviews

  • Participants may feel more comfortable being with others and are more likely to open up
  • In a group, participants can throw ideas around, stimulating each other's thinking which produces richer and more reflective data
  • They can be a useful way of generating initial ideas that can be followed up in later research
  • The researcher can combine interviewing with the opportunity to observe group dynamics and norms
• Limitations of group interviews


  • One or two individuals may dominate the discussion, inhibiting others from contributing
  • Much depends on the researcher's ability to keep the group focused on the discussion topic
  • Peer group pressure to conform to the group may lead to participants not saying what they really think
  • Data gathered from group interviews is more complex and difficult to analyse
• Structured interviews are quicker to conduct than unstructured interviews
• Unstructured interviews give you more insight than structured interviews
• The results from two unstructured interviews on a given subject may be harder to compare than the results from two structured interviews on that subject
• Practical issues with structured interviews

  • Relatively straightforward and inexpensive to conduct, as interviewers just need to follow a set of instructions
  • Can cover quite large numbers of people with relatively limited resources, as they are quick and relatively cheap to administer
  • Suitable for gathering straightforward factual information
  • The results are easily quantified because they use closed-ended questions with coded answers, making them suitable for hypothesis testing
• Response rate of structured interviews

  • The large numbers who can be surveyed using structured interviews increase the chances of obtaining a representative sample of the population
  • Structured interviews generally have a higher response rate than questionnaires, as people find it harder to turn down a face-to-face request and some may welcome the opportunity to talk
  • Response rates can be increased by the interviewer making several call backs to pursue those who fail to respond initially, though this increases the cost of the survey
  • High response rates help to produce a more representative result and therefore a better basis for making generalisations
  • However, those with the time or willingness to be interviewed may be untypical, which can produce unrepresentative data and undermine the validity of any generalisations made from the findings
• Reliability of structured interviews

  • Structured interviews are seen as reliable because it is easy for the researcher to standardise and control them, ensuring that each interview is conducted in precisely the same way with the same questions, in the same order, with the same wording and tone of voice
  • If each interviewer conducts every interview in exactly the same way, then any other researcher following the same interview procedures should get very similar results
  • The structured interview provides a 'recipe' for repeating the research, like in cookery, so anyone who follows the recipe should get the same result
  • The fact that all interviewees are asked exactly the same questions also means that we can compare their answers easily to identify similarities and differences
• Validity of structured interviews

  • Critics argue that like questionnaires, structured interviews often produce a distorted picture of the subjects they are trying to study
  • Structured interviews usually use closed-ended questions that restrict interviewees to choosing from a limited number of pre-set answers, so if none of these answers fits what the interviewee really wishes to say, the data obtained will be invalid
  • Structured interviews give interviewers very little opportunity to explain questions or clarify misunderstandings for interviewees
• Limitations of structured interviews

  • Like self-completed questionnaires, structured interviews suffer from the inflexibility that comes from having to draw up the questions in advance, which means the researcher has already decided what is important, yet this may not coincide with what the interviewee thinks is important
  • The findings may lack validity because they do not reflect the interviewee's concerns and priorities
  • Establishing the questions beforehand and then sticking to them rigidly will make it impossible to pursue any interesting leads that emerge in the course of the interviews, thereby losing valuable insights
  • Like questionnaires, structured interviews are merely snapshots taken at one moment in time, so they fail to capture the flowing, dynamic nature of social life, unlike participant observation
• Feminist criticisms of structured interviews

  • The researcher, not the female interviewee, is in control of the interview and decides the line of questioning to be followed, mirroring women's subordination in wider society
  • Survey methods treat women as isolated individuals rather than seeing them in the context of the power relationships that oppress them
  • Surveys impose the researcher's categories on women, making it difficult for them to express their experiences of oppression, thus concealing the unequal power relationships between the sexes
• Surveys and structured interviews are criticized for failing to capture the flowing, dynamic nature of social life, unlike participant observation
• Feminist criticisms of survey methods

  • They are patriarchal and give a distorted, invalid picture of women's experience
  • The researcher, not the female interviewee, is in control of the interview and decides the line of questioning to be followed, mirroring women's subordination in wider society
  • They treat women as isolated individuals rather than seeing them in the context of the power relationships that oppress them
  • They impose the researcher's categories on women, making it difficult for them to express their experiences of oppression, thus concealing the unequal power relationships between the sexes
• These feminist criticisms are similar to those put forward by interpretivist sociologists, who argue that structured interviews fail to reveal how the interviewee sees their situation
• Unstructured interviews


  Interviews where the interviewer has complete freedom to vary the interview, in contrast to a standardised format
• Advantages of unstructured interviews

  • They allow the interviewer to develop rapport and sensitivity with the interviewee
  • They give the interviewee more opportunity to speak about what they think is important
  • They make it easier for interviewer and interviewee to check each other's meanings
  • They are highly flexible, allowing the interviewer to explore whatever seems interesting or relevant
  • They are useful for exploring unfamiliar topics where the researcher doesn't know much about in advance
• Unstructured interviews are particularly useful when researching sensitive topics, as the empathy and encouragement of the interviewer will help the interviewee feel comfortable discussing difficult or personal subjects
• In their study of claimants' experiences of unemployment, Hartley Dean and Peter Taylor Gooby used unstructured tape-recorded interviews, with questions not put in any set order, the wording adapted to fit the circumstances of the respondent and/or the interview situation, and additional questions or prompts used at the interviewer's discretion to clarify or develop themes as they emerged
• This approach gave interviewees the freedom to talk in their own terms about the issues that concern them
• Disadvantages of unstructured interviews

  • Practical problems: they take a long time to conduct, limiting the number that can be carried out and resulting in a relatively small sample size; they require more thorough training for interviewers than structured interviews
  • Representativeness: the smaller numbers involved mean the sample interviewed is less likely to be representative, making it harder to make valid generalisations
  • Reliability: they are not reliable because they are not standardised, with each interview being unique
  • Quantification: the open-ended nature of the questions makes it difficult to pre-code the answers, limiting their usefulness for establishing statistical relationships or hypothesis testing
  • Validity: they inevitably involve an element of social interaction between the interviewer and interviewee, which can introduce bias and distortion
• Social interaction between the interviewer and interviewee can introduce bias and distortion in several ways, such as the interviewer's wording, tone, facial expressions, and identification with the interviewee
• The interview as a social interaction

  Threaten the validity

  interviewer bias through leading questions or the interviewer identified too closely with the interviewees

  artificiality not a normal conversation both parties know it’s an interview

  status and power inequality

  cultural differences different meanings to the same word

  then social desirability effect people seek to win approval

  ethical issues informed consent should be gained as well as guaranteed anonymity and it made clear they don’t have to answer any of the que they don’t wish too
• Improving the validity of interviews

  Alfred Kinseys 1953 interview on sexual behaviour asked questions rapidly giving interviewees little time to think and used some questions to check the answer given to other questions follow up interviews 18 months later we’re also used

  James Nazroos 1997 survey of the health of British ethnic minorities were carried out in the language of the interviewee’s choice