Ethical Issues

• Ethical issues: A difficulty, tension or problem which arises during the course of the research process. This may be because there is a conflict between what the researcher wants to study (the research aims) and how they go about it, with potential negative consequences for participants or those being represented for.
• Lack of informed consent


  Researchers explain to the ppts what the aim of the study is and what they will be asked to do. They ask the ppt is they are happy to take part. If both aspects are not done honestly, there is a lack of informed consent.

  • Where any deception is involved, this automatically undermines the extent to which the consent gained can be said to be 'informed'.
  • When using ppt's younger than 16 yrs or are vulnerable (eg. learning disabilities), consent needs to be gained from parents, guardians or an appointed adult.
• Use of deception


  Deception is where you lead someone to believe something which is not true. Researchers should use minimal deception. This means that participants must be deceived in the study as little as possible.

  • Deception can be active (where an actual lie is told) or passive (where something is omitted); some passive deception is common, but active deception is seen as the most serious.
• Lack of right to withdraw


  Ppt's are given the right to withdraw themselves from the study at any point, and the right to withdraw their data too. Ppt's must not be coerced into continuing with a study, and must suffer no negative effects if they leave.

  • If they are prevented from withdrawing in any way, this is a lack of right to withdraw.
• Lack of confidentiality, anonymity and privacy

  > Confidentiality relates to how the data is stored and who sees it; the criteria is that only people with a need to know or a need to see, should see the data.

  > Anonymity means their data is not identifiable to them by name.

  > Privacy is about not listening in to what a ppt is saying, or looking at what they are writing and doing (in a way which invades their privacy).
• Protection from harm

  Ppt's must be subjected to minimal harm in the study. Vulnerable groups should also be protected, usually via informed consent being given by someone else and close attention paid to their welfare.

  • Harm includes physical and psychological harm, and includes things like embarrassment, loss of self-esteem, etc.
• Not giving advice


  Researchers are not supposed to give any advice to ppt's even if it is asked for. If ppt's request information about their performance or skills, researchers should refer them on to a professional person who can help them.

  • Most anxieties and concerns are dealt with in the debriefing.
• Use of debriefing


  Debriefing must be 'an active procedure', not just saying thank you. It must restore ppt's to the state / condition they were in prior to the study. All deception must be cleared up. Ppt's are asked if they would like to receive details of the findings.

  • This is not an ethical issue but technically it is a way of dealing with ethical issues.