lu 7

• Adaptive Strategies (Economic Typology)

  Foraging<|>Horticulture<|>Agriculture<|>Pastoralism<|>Industrialism
• Foraging (Hunting-gathering)

  • Mobility, use of nature's resource
• Horticulture (Slash-and-burn, shifting cultivation, swiddening, dry farming)

  • Fallow period
• Agriculture (Intensive farming)

  • Continuous use of land, intensive use of labour
• Pastoralism (Herding)


  • Nomadism and transhumance
• Industrialism (Industrial production)


  • Factory production, capitalism, socialist production
• Market Principle

  Profit-oriented principle of exchange that dominates in states, particularly industrial states. Good and services are bought and sold, and values are determined by supply and demand.
• Redistribution

  Major exchange mode of chiefdoms, many archaic states, and some states with managed economies.
• Reciprocity


  One of the three principles of exchange; governs exchange between social equals; major exchange mode in band and tribal society.
• Market Exchange


  Items are bought and sold, using money, with and eye to maximizing profit, and value is determined by the law of supply and demand. Bargaining is the characteristic of market-principle exchanges.
• In world capitalist economy, the market principle dominates.
• The market principle governs the distribution of the means of production: land, labour, natural resources, technology and capital.
• Redistribution

  Goods, services, or equivalent move from the local level to a center (e.g. a capital, a regional collection points, or a storehouse near a chief's residence). The flow of goods eventually reverse direction – out from the centre, down through the hierarchy, and back to the common people.
• Redistribution

  • Cherokee, the original owners of the Tennessee Valley
• Reciprocity


  Exchange between social equals, who are normally related by kinship, marriage, or other personal ties. Dominant in the more egalitarian societies – among foragers, cultivators and pastoralists.
• 3 degrees of reciprocity

  • Generalized
  • Balanced
  • Negative
• Generalized reciprocity


  Principle that characterizes exchanges between closely related individuals. As social distance increases, reciprocity becomes balanced and finally negative.
• Generalized reciprocity


  Altruistic transaction in which gifts are freely given without calculating value of payment due
• Generalized reciprocity


  • Meat distribution among !Kung
  • Family pooling of resources, even birthday presents
• Balanced reciprocity

  Direct exchange, usually among distance kin. Value of gift is calculated and time of repayment is specified.
• Balanced reciprocity

  • Kula ring, Trobriand Islands
  • One trader gives partner a white armband, expect a red necklace of equal value in return
• Negative reciprocity


  An exchange where one party tries to get better exchange from other party, usually occur among unrelated persons
• Negative reciprocity


  • Hard bargaining or deception
  • Horse raids
  • Selling prepared food to a captive market