RM

• Reconstructive Memory (RM)


  Bartlett:

  Memory is not like a tape recorder, it is not very good. We only store fragments of original events. In retrieval we fill in missing information using past experiences. Previous knowledge is known as a schema or schemata.
• RM- Key Info


  - Focused on a understanding of qualitative change in what is remembered, instead of looking at quantity of recall but rather the changed in quality of memory.

  - People do not passively record memories as exact copies but actively try to make sense of it from what they already know.

  - Memory is a reconstructive process prone to systematic biases and errors.

  - Memories are a combination of new and old knowledge, personal beliefs and own experiences, blended together to reconstruct events that aren't always accurate.
• RM- Schema


  Schema

  - A framework or packet of knowledge

  - Ideas and expectations relating to a specific aspect of the world

  - Based on past experiences

  - Provides people with expectations and rules about what to do

  - When we reconstruct a memory we activate the relevant schema and use the information
• RM- Process of reconstructing memory

  1) Levelling

  2) Sharpening

  3) Assimilation
• RM- Levelling


  Simplifying events when recalled to half the length
• RM- Sharpening


  Overemphasise certain details
• RM- Assimilation


  Change details to fit in with previous knowledge and personal experiences
• RM- The War of the Ghosts


  It was a native american story, the participants were required to read it twice carefully, and then reproduce it to another person either by serial or repeated reproduction.
• RM- Serial Reproduction


  10 replications, one person to another, like Chinese whispers, reduced down to 3 sentences, key aspects were left out (native American details), discussed in a Western way
• RM- Repeated Reproduction


  10 people, one person to read the story and read it to 9 other people, as it went on each new person received a shorter less detailed version, lose key information
• RM- The War of the Ghosts: Results

  Bartlett suggested that the reasons for change was due to the fact that remembering involves looking at schemas. We have a schema for every aspect of the world and all info related to it. When we reconstruct memories, we activate relevant schemas and make use of them.

  E.g, WOTG makes use of ghosts, war, death schemas

  When the participants remembered the story, they scanned all relevant schemas for info and eliminated info which did not fit

  This happened to be the info specific to native americans.

  
  

  The story became increasingly stereotypes with reproduction because it changed to fit the schemas they already had.
• RM- Allport and Portman 1947


  They showed (all white) participants a photo of a white scruffy man armed with a razor arguing with a black man in a suit.

  After a few reproductions, the descriptions changed so the black man was holding the razor.

  This is assumably because the participants accessed their black/white schemas and shifted the scene to make it more logical to them.
• RM- Reconstruction vs Reproductionterm-13

  Psychologists also believe memory is an act of reproduction, we store info about an event and later recall it without changing it. This is not the case. Memory is an active process and we store fragments of info, when we recall it we build it into new things. Elements are missing and not accurate about what happened.
• RM- Evaluation


  Strength: evidence to support, can be tested, application

  Weaknesses: Criticised study, reductionist/oversimplified
• RM- Evaluation: Strength (evidence to support)

  - Bartlett conducted his own research such as war of the ghosts

  - It was believed to be high in ecological validity and very well controlled with consistent results to support RM

  - The study drew attention of the way schemas work

  - There is realistic theory and research due to the study and relevant to real life memory processes
• RM- Evaluation: Strength (scientific)


  - The theory can be tested scientifically

  - This can be done by experimental methods because the IV can be operationalised and measured

  - The story has features which can be counted for each time it is recalled and what changes each time reproduced

  - It can be reduced into an IV and DV and other variables can be controlled which makes it reliable
• RM- Evaluation: Strength (application)


  - The theory can be applied to society

  - It can be applied to the relevance of a prosecution on eyewitness memory is shown to need questioning by studies showing that memories are reconstructed and one version of events
• RM- Evaluation: Weakness (criticised)

  - The study has been criticised for being poorly designed and controlled

  - Other researchers such as Gauld and Stephenson 1967 found that in a replication, errors were reduced when given more explicit instructions and highlighted importance of active recall

  
  

  -Wynn and Logic 1988 suggested the folk tale was poorly recalled because of how it was written

  - Which means it is unusual and difficult to form connections rather than piecing together parts of it from memory

  
  

  - The lack of controlled methods and objectivity meant that the participants were inconsistent, making reproductions hard

  - Questions the reliability and validity due to no standardised procedure/instructions
• RM- Evaluation: Weakness (Oversimplified)

  - It does not explain how memory is reconstructive

  - It takes one part of memory and describes it rather than explaining it

  - The theory holds that memory is an active process which is a useful contribution to the debate but it does not explain what that activity is, other than referencing schemas
• RM- Evaluation: Weakness (reductionist)

  - Not all memories are inaccurate and affected by schemas

  - Other studies have shown that memory can be very accurate e.g in situations that are personally important

  - In the war of the ghosts, people recalled 'something black came out of his mouth' because it is unusual
• RM- Application


  Eye-witness testimony

  - 30% of recalls are correct, 70% are incorrect

  - Bartlett's theory suggests that memory is impacted by schemas due to what was expected to happen

  - Loftus and Palmer provided lots of research evidence

  - Consequently, no convictions are based on EWT alone, not trustworthy

  - This is because you are fitting parts of the schema, most memories are prone to error and bias

  - Memories are not accurate, evidence can prove them wrong