Research Methods

• Primary methods is when the researcher collects the data themselves.
• Secondary methods are where the data is already available and the researcher collects existing research materials through a number of sources like the internet, libraries and archives.
• Strengths of primary methods:

  • They fit the researchers aim better
  • More reliable and accurate
  • Other sources may be outdated or don't exist
• Weaknesses of primary methods:

  • Time consuming and expensive
  • Researcher bias
  • Difficulty of access (gangs)
• Strengths of secondary methods:

  • Quick and easy
  • Less expensive
  • Useful for background information
• Weaknesses of secondary methods:

  • May be outdated
  • May not fit hypothesis well
• Quantitative data is numerical data. Data can be presented in number form. Examples include statistics on qualifications and social class. It can be presented as percentages, tables, bar charts etc.
• Qualitative data is descriptive data. It refers to things that can be observed but not measured such as emotions. It is usually in the form of words
• Stages of sociological research:

  1. Choose a topic to research
  2. Decide on the focus
  3. Choose a sample
  4. Choose a method
  5. Carry out research and collect data
  6. Analyse the data and present in a report
  7. Conclude the findings
• When deciding the focus of the research, sociologists may come up with a general research question, decide on some general aims or develop a hypothesis they want to test
• Sociologists choose their research topic based on:

  • Personal interest and values
  • Theoretical perspective
  • Funding- usually comes from government, charity, business
  • Practical factors
  • Knowledge gaps
• Sociologists choose their research method based on:

  • Practical factors
  • Ethical factors
  • Theoretical considerations/ issues
• Practical factors relate to time, money, skills and logistics. Longitudinal studies may be time consuming and costly. The sociologist may not have the skills for the research, such as in an interview. They may not be able to take part due to characteristics, such as being the opposite gender. Logistics- the researcher may choose secondary sources if investigating the past. Interviews are possible, but rely on memory. Sample size- a large sample would fit questionnaires or official statistics better. The nature of the group may be difficult, some groups such as gangs may refuse to answer.
• Ethical factors are moral principles, there are guidelines published by the British Sociological Association (BSA) to guide research. The main factors are:

  • Informed consent
  • Avoidance of deception
  • Confidentiality
  • Protection from harm
  • Vulnerable groups
• Theoretical considerations determines what perspective the sociologist takes. There are two types:

  • Positivism- favours quantitative data and reliability
  • Interpretivism- favours qualitative data and validity
• When evaluating methods, other issues we must consider include:

  • Representativeness
  • Hawthorne effect
  • Artificial environment
  • Going native
  • Researcher effect/ interviewer bias
  • Objectivity
• Strategies for research include:

  • Social surveys
  • Ethnography
  • Longitudinal study
  • Case study
  • Triangulation
• Social Surveys 


  Large scale research, using questionnaires or structured interviews. They are useful to collect quantitative data on large samples.
• Ethnography 


  Involves 'getting inside the heads' of those being studied. It uses participant observation and produces qualitative data. It is difficult to do as it involves gaining access and joining in on activities of the group. It can be time consuming and expensive.
• Longitudinal Study 


  Revisits the same sample at intervals (e.g every 5 years) to see how things have changed. They are good for seeing changes over a long period but people may drop out over time, which can distort findings and it can be expensive to keep revisiting the group.
• Case Study 


  A one-off study of an individual or social group. This may be useful to gain an insight into a particular group, but is difficult to generalise to the whole population.
• Triangulation


  Where a researcher combines methods that create both quantitative and qualitative data. This can give a fuller picture of the life of the social group, but is more expensive and time consuming.
• The Census is an example of sociological research, carried out every 10 years and is a self-completion questionnaire, with fixed-response questions, posted to every UK household. This creates quantitative data and would be preferred by positivists as it is likely to be representative and is reliable.
• Ann Oakley's study "From here to maternity" is an example of sociological research, where she studied first time motherhood and the impact it has on women's lives. She carried out an observation of a small sample of women in the hospital and then unstructured interviews in their homes. This approach would be from an interpretivist perspective and would've produced qualitative data.
• Emile Durkheim's study "Suicide, a study in sociology" is an example of sociological research into the rate of suicide across different European countries. He wanted to show that explanations of suicide could be linked to societies rather than the individual's psychological status. He used official statistics from different countries to make comparisons and correlations. He argued suicide rates were related to levels of social integration and social regulation found in society. He used a positivist approach, secondary methods and quantitative data.
• The relevant population, the entire group sociologists would like to question, is too big for a sociologist to handle. A smaller group of people, known as a sample, is drawn from the relevant population. The hope is that the findings can be generalised to the whole population. The sample is more manageable and enables the sociologist to go into more depth.
• Sampling can be done by finding lists with names of suitable people. Usually several lists are amalgamated so the collection of names included people from different areas, classes, ethnic groups etc. The resulting long list is known as the sampling frame. From this, the sociologist will select sampling units, representative of correct proportions of people with different characteristics in the sample as in the whole population.
• Types of sampling:

  • Random
  • Systematic
  • Stratified
  • Quota
  • Snowball
  • Volunteer
  • Opportunity
• Random sampling is a computerised system, or 'drawing names from a hat', the required number of units is chosen. There is an equal chance of the remaining names being chosen.
• Systematic sampling is a more patterned approach, for example choosing every tenth name on a list. It is possible to predict who else will be chosen once it's begun, so it is not random.
• Stratified sampling involves creating a number of sampling frames, representing different types of people such as males and females. The required amount is then selected in appropriate proportions. This usually results in a stratified random sample.
• Quota sampling is a straightforward method often adopted for market research. People who look to fit the required sample are approached in the street and asked to take part.
• Snowball sampling is when a researcher gains access to a small number of people and asks them to invite similar friends to be interviewed or to pass questionnaires onto them. This continues until the researcher gains a substantial sample.
• Volunteer sampling is when a researcher advertises their study, such as on posters, and those who are interested will approach the researcher and ask to take part.
• Opportunity sampling is when the researcher selects participants from a place where they are likely to be found, and collect as many people as they can.
• Strength of random sampling:

  • Everyone has an equal chance to be selected.
  • Unbiased
  • Easy
• Weaknesses of random sampling:

  • Unrepresentative
  • Bias may still occur
  • Complete list may be unavailable
• Strengths of systematic sampling:

  • Simple and quick
  • Evenly distributed
  • Unbiased
• Weakness of systematic sampling:

  • Unrepresentative
  • Possible to predict who is next
• Strengths of stratified sampling:

  • Appropriate proportions of people in population
  • Representative
  • More accurate