gender bias

• Universality


  any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing.
• Gender bias


  a tendency to treat one individual or a group in a different way from others. In the context of gender bias, psychological research or theory may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men or women (usually women).
• alpha bias


  psychological theories that suggest there are real and enduing differences between men and women. These may enhance or undervalue members of either sex, but typically undervalue females.
• beta bias


  theories that ignore or minimise differences between the sexes.
• beta bias research

  Early research on fight or flight was based exclusively on male animals (preferred for research because female hormones fluctuate) and was assumed to be the universal response to a threatening situation = female response has been ignored/minimised.However, more recently Taylor et al (2002) suggested that female biology has evolved to prevent the fight/flight response, shifting attention towards caring for offspring (tending) and forming defensive networks with other females (befriending). 
• androcentrism



  male-centred; when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard (meaning female behaviour is often judged to be ‘abnormal’ or ‘deficient’ by comparison). 

  ‘normal behaviour’ is a result of male centred research, any behaviour that deviates from this likely to be ‘abnormal’/’inferior’ in comparison. Which therefore leads to female behaviour being misunderstood or pathologised (psychological instability/disorder)

  can be conscious (the individual knows they are behaving this way) or unconscious
• why is androcentrism a problem for psychological research?

  P: A limitation is that the lack of women appointed to senior research level means that female concerns may not be reflected in the research questions asked.

  E: Male researchers are more likely to have their work published. In lab experiments, female participants are placed with a male researcher who has the power to label them as unreasonable etc (Nicholson, 1995)

  C: This means that psychology may be guilty of supporting this
• individual differences in gender bias?

  P: Another issue regarding gender bias is that it fails to consider each person on their own merit.

  E: For example, gender bias of all types forces us into thinking that all males are one way and all females are another.

  C: This therefore ignores individual differences.
• challenging bias

  P: psychologists have put forward a number of solutions. E.g. some have attempted to develop theories that emphasise the importance or value of women.

  E: Cornwell (2013) noted that females are better at learning, as they are more attentive and organised, emphasising the positive attributes. C: this type of research helps to reduce or challenge gender stereotypes
• alpha bias research

  Freud argued that there are genuine differences between men and women (e.g. penis envy and femininity as a failed form of masculinity).Freud suggested that women develop a weaker superego (morality principle) meaning they are more liable for immoral behaviour argued that because girls do not suffer the same oedipal conflict as boys, they do not identify with their mothers as strongly as boys identify with their fathers, so develop weaker superegos.

  Freud saw femininity as failed masculinity
• feminist psychology

  P: A strength is that feminist commentators have put forward a number of criteria that should be adhered to in order to avoid gender bias in research.

  E: Women should be studied within meaningful real-life contexts and genuinely participate in research, rather than being objects of study. Diversity within groups of women should be studied, rather than comparisons made between men and women.

  C: This way of doing research may be more preferable and less gender bias.