stuff

• What is active cotransport?

  Active cotransport involves actively transporting one substance out of the cell to bring glucose or amino acids into the cell.
• What is spontaneous generation?

  • Living organisms emerged from non-living matter
  • Proposed by Aristotle
• Who disproved spontaneous generation?

  Louis Pasteur disproved spontaneous generation through an experiment.
• What experiment did Louis Pasteur conduct?

  He used two swan-necked flasks to prevent the entry of airborne life and observed growth in one flask.
• What was the conclusion of Pasteur's experiment?


  He concluded that life comes from life.
• What is abiogenesis?


  • First cells arose from non-living material
  • Unique conditions allowed this to happen
• What experiment proved abiogenesis?

  The Miller-Urey Experiment proved abiogenesis.
• What did the Miller-Urey Experiment involve?

  It heated up gases originally on Earth and ran electrodes through them to recreate conditions similar to lightning.
• What were the results of the Miller-Urey Experiment?

  The experiment produced intermediate products that formed amino acids.
• What is the formula for calculating magnification?

  M = I/A, where M is magnification, I is image size, and A is actual size.
• What is magnification?


  Magnification is the increasing apparent size of something.
• What is resolution?


  Resolution is the shortest distance between two points on a specimen that can still be distinguished as separate structures.
• What are the differences between light microscopes and electron microscopes?

  Light Microscope:

  • Magnification: 1000-2000x
  • Resolution: 200 nm
  • Can observe living things
  • Cheap and accessible

  
  

  Electron Microscope:

  • Magnification: Up to 10,000,000x
  • Resolution: Less than 1 nm
  • Cannot observe living things
  • Expensive and complicated to operate

  
• What is the unit conversion for meters to millimeters?

  1 m = 1000 mm.
• What is the unit conversion for millimeters to micrometers?

  1 mm = 1000 μm.
• What is the unit conversion for micrometers to nanometers?

  1 μm = 1000 nm.
• What happens to the surface area to volume ratio as cell size increases?

  • As cell size increases, the ratio of surface area to volume decreases.
  • Large cells have small SA:V, which cannot diffuse efficiently.

  
• What are emergent properties in multicellular organisms?

  • All multicellular organisms begin as one cell.
  • As organisms develop, they begin differentiation and specialization.
  • Gene expression is the basis of these processes.

  
• What is the process of making proteins from mRNA called?

  Translation
• What is the role of tRNA-Activating enzyme in translation?

  It catalyzes the attachment of specific amino acids to tRNA using ATP hydrolysis for energy.
• How does mRNA travel from the nucleus to the cytoplasm?

  It travels through the nuclear pores.
• In which direction does translation occur on the mRNA strand?

  In a 5’ to 3’ direction.
• What are the three phases of translation?

  1. Initiation
  2. Elongation
  3. Termination
• What is the start codon for translation?

  AUG
• What happens during the initiation phase of translation?

  The small ribosomal subunit attaches to the start codon, and the appropriate tRNA binds to the large ribosomal subunit.
• How does elongation occur during translation?

  A tRNA with the complementary anticodon binds to the mRNA, and amino acids bond to form a peptide bond.
• What is translocation in the context of translation?

  It is the process where tRNA moves from the P site to the E site and new tRNA enters the A site, continuing the cycle of translation.
• What triggers the termination phase of translation?

  The ribosomal unit reaches a stop codon.
• What happens to the polypeptide chain during termination?

  It detaches from the tRNA and the ribosomal subunits.
• What determines the destination of a protein after translation?

  • Location of production
  • Rough ER → Golgi Apparatus → Vesicle → leaves the cell
  • Cytoplasm → stays inside the cell

  
• What are polysomes?


  • Structures formed by multiple ribosomes translating the same mRNA
  • Found in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes
• Name an example of a protein and its function.

  • Immunoglobulins: Antibody - immune system
  • Rhodopsin: Light-sensitive receptor
  • Collagen: Structural - connective tissue
  • Rubisco: Enzyme - photosynthesis
  • Insulin: Hormone
  • Spider Silk: Structural

  
• How many amino acids are in insulin?

  51 amino acids
• What is the primary structure of a protein?

  The sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain.
• What stabilizes the secondary structure of proteins?

  Hydrogen bonding.
• What is the tertiary structure of a protein?

  The further folding of the polypeptide stabilized by interactions between R groups.
• What characterizes the quaternary structure of a protein?

  It consists of proteins with two or more polypeptide chains.

  
• What is a substrate in the context of enzymes?

  The specific reactant that an enzyme acts upon.
• What is the role of sucrase?

  It catalyzes the breakdown of sucrose.
• How do enzymes affect activation energy?

  They lower the activation energy needed for a reaction.