behavioural

• Watson and the early behaviourists

  • Beginning 20th century – scientific status and value of introspection was questioned
  • Watson (1913) – Introspection produced data that was subjective
  • Focus on ‘private’ mental processes
• behaviourist approach - Focuses on scientific processes involved in learning alongside the use of carefully controlled lab experiments
• Behaviourist approach: A learning approach that suggests all children are born as (blank slates), learning through their interactions with their

  environment.
• Learning approaches support the role of nurture. They believe that we develop through experiences. Learning approaches believe in the role of reinforcement (that consequences of behaviours can make them more or less likely to happen again)
• BEHAVIOUR IS LEARNED FROM EXPERIENCEWe learn through classical and operant conditioning.Considers itself to be very scientific - not interested in thought processesObservable behaviours should be studied and in a scientific wayValid to study animals to understand behaviour Animals follow the same principles of learning as human
• Classical conditioning

  Neutral stimulus - generates no response before conditioning

  Unconditioned stimulus - naturally generates the unconditioned response 
• Operant conditioning

  Punishment - makes you less likely to repeat a behaviour

  Negative reinforcement - when you avoid something negative from happening, makes u more likely to repeat the behaviour e.g no detention

  Positive reinforcement - makes u more likely to repeat the behaviour e.g housepoint
• What is the ‘Law of Effect’?

  “responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation.”
• • To be like other sciences, Psychology should only study observable, quantifiable behaviour
  • The subject matter of Psychology should be the laws that predict how behaviour changes and can be controlled — classical and operant conditioning
  • Humans are only animals and should not be treated as any more complex
  • Because humans are only animals, research on animal behaviour will be directly relevant to humans.
• Skinner’s Box = Skinner demonstrated, using a rat, the mechanisms of positive and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement was shown when the rats pressed down on a lever to receive food as a reward, and subsequently learnt to repeat this action to increase their rewards. Negative reinforcement was shown when the rat learnt to press down on the lever to avoid the unpleasant consequence of an electric shock
• One strength of the behaviourist approach is that it is considered highly scientific. This is because it focuses on observable empirical data that can be measured in an objective way. This is a strength because it strengthens Psychology’s reputation as a discipline meaning the behaviourist approach supports the idea that Psychology is a science.
• One strength of the behaviourist approach is that it has had practical applications. For example, flooding and systematic desensitisation are treatments for phobias that are based on behaviourist principles. This is a strength because if these treatments work, it suggests behaviourist principles may explain behaviour meaning the behaviourist approach ignores other significant factors that affect our behaviour.
• One weakness of the behaviourist approach is that much of the evidence is from animal studies. For example, the work of Pavlov and Skinner utilised animals to demonstrate behavioural ideas, but did not test whether this could be extrapolated to humans. This is a weakness because it may mean that the research evidence is not valid due to the subject being used meaning the behaviourist approach may struggle to explain human behaviour.
• One weakness of the behaviourist approach is that it could be considered environmentally reductionist. This is because it focuses on simple stimulus-reponse associations and does not acknowledge the role of higher cognition such as decision making. This is a weakness because there is evidence that there are biological mechanisms that affect our behaviour, such as genetics and hormones meaning that the behaviourists approach ignores other significant factors that affect our behaviour.
• One weakness of the behaviourist approach is that it only focuses on the role of nurture on our behaviour. This is because the founders of behaviourism focused on the roles of learning through the environment and experience and stated that we had no predispositions before birth.  This is a weakness because by ignoring these abilities it oversimplifies the human experience meaning the behaviourist approach does not show the full complexity of human behaviour.
• Earliest scientific approach, learning approach, product of environment nurture
• Learning approaches support the role of nurture. They believe that we develop through experiences. Learning approaches believe in the role of reinforcement (that consequences of behaviours can make them more or less likely to happen again)
• Behaviourism assumptions:

  BEHAVIOUR IS LEARNED FROM EXPERIENCE

  We learn through classical and operant conditioning.

  Considers itself to be very scientific - not interested in thought processes

  Observable behaviours should be studied and in a scientific way

  Valid to study animals to understand behaviour

  Animals follow the same principles of learning as human
• Skinner’s research refers to both his studies on animals using the skinner box and his theories about operant conditioning

  Pavlov’s research refers to both his studies on dogs and salivation and his theories about classical conditioning
• Pavlov’s theory of learning, known as classical conditioning, or Pavlovian conditioning, posits that behaviors can be learned through the association between different stimuli.

  Classical conditioning (later developed by Watson, in 1913) involves learning to associate an unconditioned stimulus that already brings about a particular response (i.e., a reflex) with a new (conditioned) stimulus, so that the new stimulus brings about the same response.
• UCS - noise

  UCR - fear

  NS - balloon

  CS - balloon

  CR - fear 
• pavlov's dog experiment

  UCS being trapped

  UCR fear

  NS lifts

  CS lifts

  CR fear

  
• Briefly describe a ‘Skinner box’

  allowed complete control of the organism’s environment, the behaviours that were available to it and the reinforcement or punishment it would receive.
• Skinner demonstrated, using a rat, the mechanisms of positive and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement was shown when the rats pressed down on a lever to receive food as a reward, and subsequently learnt to repeat this action to increase their rewards. Negative reinforcement was shown when the rat learnt to press down on the lever to avoid the unpleasant consequence of an electric shock
• The central claim of the behaviourist approach is that almost all human behaviour is the result of learning. One of the first behaviourists to explore the relationship between learning and behaviour was Pavlov. Pavlov developed the theory of classical conditioning and famously tested it using his dogs, who were conditioned to associate the sound of a bell with food. This resulted in the dogs producing a salivation response at the sound of a bell even when no food was present. Pavlov demonstrated that repeated exposure to an event leads to a learned and uncontrollable behaviour.
• Developing these ideas, Skinner suggested that behaviour was the result of learning through the consequences of our actions. Skinner conducted research into his operant conditioning theory using rats. He found 3 consequences will affect behaviour: positive reinforcement involves rewarding behaviour + negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant outcome. punishment involves adding an unpleasant outcome to a behaviour, which reduces the likelihood of it being repeated. For Skinner, behaviour is the result of learning/remembering the consequences of previous behaviours.
• An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) will produce an unconditioned response (UCR). The UCR is automatic and occurs whenever the UCS is present. A neutral stimulus (NS) initially produces no response. If the neutral stimulus is consistently paired with the unconditioned stimulus, it will eventually elicit the same response. When this happens, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned response becomes a conditioned response (CR).

  ucs -> ucr +ns

  ns + ucs -> cr

  ns -> cs
• In the original research, the bell and the food were presented together (simultaneous conditioning). Pavlov also investigated trace conditioning, where food was presented some time after the bell. Pavlov found that learning occurred much more quickly with simultaneous conditioning, and that the shorter the interval between the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus, the quicker learning occurred. He also found that a bell with a similar pitch to the one originally used to condition the dogs would still lead to a salivation response. This is called stimulus generalisation.
• If the pitch becomes too different from the original, salivation will not occur - this is stimulus discrimination. If the bell is repeatedly presented without the food, the conditioned response will become weaker until it is no longer produced. When this happens, this is called extinction. However, if the bell is presented again some time after extinction occurs, the dog will salivate again in response to the bell. This is known as spontaneous recovery.
• A continuous schedule of reinforcement is when reinforcement is given every time the desired behaviour occurs. If reinforcement is no longer given continuously, an animal will quickly learn to stop producing that behaviour. When an animal has to produce the behaviour a particular number of times before reinforcement is given, this is called a partial schedule of reinforcement.
• If the number of times the behaviour has to be produced before reinforcement is given is constant, this is called a fixed ratio (FR) schedule of reinforcement. If reinforcement is no longer given on a FR schedule, extinction occurs fairly quickly. Another type of partial schedule of reinforcement is called a variable ratio (VR) schedule of reinforcement. This is when reinforcement is given after an unpredictable number of responses. Extinction occurs much more slowly with a VR schedule of reinforcement.
• A strength of the behaviourist approach is that it has been used to develop behavioural treatments. For example, systematic desensitisation is used to phobias. Research shows that SD is 75% effective. Additionally, behavioural activation has been shown to be beneficial in the treatment of depression. This is a strength as it improves quality of life. However, behavioural based treatments and therapies aren't always effective for everyone. For example, an individual with depression may find it difficult to engage with behavioural activation, so SSRI's may be more beneficial for them.
• A strength of the behaviourist approach is that it is a scientific approach of studying behaviour. It involves studying observable behaviour in controlled conditions where variables can be isolated. This means research has high internal validity, and is easily replicable. This is advantageous as reliability can be assessed. Causal relationships can also be drawn and applied to the wider population. This is a strength because behaviour can be measured objectively, giving psychology greater credibility and status as a science.
• A limitation of the behaviourist approach is that it ignores the role of nature. It assumes that all behaviour is a product of our environment and our experiences, but there is lots of research that demonstrates the influence of biological factors in behaviour. For example, dopamine (a neurotransmitter) appears to be implicated in mental disorders including schizophrenia and OCD. The behaviourist approach may therefore be reductionistic and provide us with a limited view of behaviour.
• A strength of the behaviourist approach is that operant and classical conditioning can explain some aspects of behaviour. Learning influences behaviour and explains some mental disorders. e.g phobias are acquired thru classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning. The feared stimulus is often associated with a traumatic experience. This fear is then positively reinforced by avoidance of the stimulus, or negatively reinforced by contact with the stimulus. However, this approach cant explain all behaviour. Depression is better explained by cognition, e.g negative schemas.
• A weakness of this approach is that it is overly deterministic. This may be problematic as it suggests that we have no control over our behaviour The role of free will is ignored, and it has been argued that free will does not exist; instead, our behaviour is simply a result of learning. Behaviourism is criticised for being too mechanistic, seeing humans as passive responders to the environment with no conscious insight into their behaviour. This is an issue for the behaviourist approach as it does not tell us much about important aspects of human behaviour, including decision making.
• A strength of this approach is that it has been used to develop behavioural treatments for some mental disorders. For example, systematic desensitisation is frequently used to help individuals with a phobia. SD is 75% effective. Additionally, behavioural activation has been shown to be beneficial in the treatment of depression. This is a strength as it improves quality of life. However, behavioural based treatments/therapies may not always be effective. For example, someone with depression may struggle to engage with behavioural activation, so SSRI's may be more beneficial for them.
• A strength of this approach is that it is a scientific. It involves studying observable behaviour in controlled conditions where variables can be isolated. This means research has high internal validity and is easily replicable. Causal relationships can also be drawn and applied to the wider population. As behaviourism takes a scientific approach, it had a major influence on psychology's development as a scientific discipline. This is a strength because behaviour can be measured objectively, giving psychology greater credibility and status as a science.
• A limitation of the behaviourist approach is that it ignores the role of nature. It assumes that all behaviour is a product of our environment and our experiences, but there is lots of research that demonstrates the influence of biological factors in behaviour. For example, dopamine (a neurotransmitter) appears to be implicated in mental disorders including schizophrenia and OCD. The behaviourist approach may therefore be reductionistic and provide us with a limited view of behaviour.
• A strength of this approach is that operant and classical conditioning can explain some human behaviour. Learning clearly influences behaviour, and can explain some mental disorders. The two process model proposes that phobias are acquired through classical and maintained by operant. The feared stimulus is often associated with a traumatic experience. This fear is then positively reinforced by avoidance or negatively reinforced by contact. However, this approach can't explain all types of behaviour. For example, depression is better explained in terms of cognition e.g negative schemas.