Meta-ethics

• What is the field of study that seeks to answer the question of what goodness is?

  Meta-ethics
• How does normative ethics differ from meta-ethics?

  Normative ethics establishes what goodness is and guides action, while meta-ethics focuses exclusively on what goodness is.
• What are the two aspects of what goodness is in meta-ethics?


  Whether goodness exists in reality and what the meaning of the word 'good' is.
• What is moral realism?

  Moral realism is the view that 'goodness' is real and exists in reality.
• What is moral anti-realism?

  Moral anti-realism is the view that goodness is not real and does not exist in reality.
• What is cognitivism in meta-ethics?

  Cognitivism is the view that ethical language expresses beliefs that can be true or false.
• What is non-cognitivism in meta-ethics?

  Non-cognitivism is the view that ethical language expresses some non-belief, like an emotion, which cannot be true or false.
• What are the key distinctions between moral realism and moral anti-realism?

  • Moral realism: Goodness exists in reality.
  • Moral anti-realism: Goodness does not exist in reality.
• What are the key distinctions between cognitivism and non-cognitivism?

  • Cognitivism: Ethical language expresses beliefs that can be true or false.
  • Non-cognitivism: Ethical language expresses non-beliefs, like emotions, which cannot be true or false.
• What is naturalism in meta-ethics?

  Naturalism is the view that goodness is a natural property, a feature of the physical world.
• According to Bentham, what does goodness equal?


  Goodness equals pleasure.
• How does Bentham's Utilitarianism relate to meta-ethical naturalism?


  Bentham's Utilitarianism is a form of meta-ethical naturalism because it claims that goodness is real due to the reality of pleasure.
• What does Hume's is-ought gap argue?


  Hume's is-ought gap argues that we cannot derive an 'ought' statement from an 'is' statement.
• How does Hume's objection challenge Bentham's argument for moral realism?


  Hume's objection challenges Bentham's argument by stating that just because humans find pleasure good does not mean pleasure is inherently good.
• What is the justification gap according to Hume?

  The justification gap is the idea that there is no factual basis for our moral views, meaning ethical judgments cannot be inferred from facts.
• What does modern virtue ethics propose as a solution to Hume's critique?

  Modern virtue ethics proposes returning to an Aristotelian understanding of moral concepts, linking 'ought' to human needs for flourishing.
• Who argues that "Ought" functions like the word "need"?

  1. Anscombe
• What conclusion does Philippa Foot reach regarding deriving ought from is?


  Philippa Foot concludes that there is "no difficulty" in deriving ought from is.
• How does Foot's example illustrate the derivation of ought from is?

  Foot's example illustrates that it is a fact that children cannot flourish without help from adults, leading to the conclusion that adults ought to protect children.
• What is G. E. Moore's stance on naturalism?


  1. E. Moore rejected naturalism with his arguments of the naturalistic fallacy and the open question argument.
• What is the naturalistic fallacy according to Moore?


  The naturalistic fallacy claims that it is a fallacy to assume that something being natural means that it is good.
• What does the open question argument suggest?


  The open question argument suggests that if goodness equaled pleasure, then the statement would be tautological and uninformative.
• How does Moore conclude that goodness cannot be defined?


  Moore concludes that any attempt to define goodness leads to a paradox of equating an informative statement with an uninformative one.
• What analogy does Moore use to explain goodness?

  Moore compares goodness to the color yellow, stating that it cannot be defined but is known intuitively.
• What is intuitionism according to Moore?

  Intuitionism is the belief that we know right and wrong intuitively without a process of reasoning.
• What strength does intuitionism have according to Moore?

  Intuitionism has the strength of cross-cultural moral agreement on a core set of moral codes.
• What is Mackie's critique of intuitionism?


  Mackie's critique is that there are vast cross-cultural disagreements, suggesting moral intuitions are socially conditioned.
• What is Mackie's position on moral realism?


  Mackie concludes that there is no right or wrong, supporting anti-realism.
• What is error theory according to Mackie?


  Error theory is the belief that all ethical beliefs are false because there is no right or wrong in reality.
• What does Mackie suggest as an explanation for moral agreement across cultures?


  Mackie suggests that moral agreement could stem from evolutionary drives or practical requirements for society to exist.
• What is Ayer's theory of emotivism?


  Emotivism is Ayer's theory that ethical statements express emotional responses rather than beliefs.
• What principle did Ayer agree with regarding the meaning of statements?


  Ayer agreed with the verification principle, which states that a statement is only meaningful if it is either analytically true or empirically verifiable.
• What are the main arguments against naturalism in meta-ethics?

  • Hume's is-ought gap
  • Moore's naturalistic fallacy
  • Moore's open question argument
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of intuitionism?

  Strengths:

  • Cross-cultural moral agreement on core moral codes

  
  

  Weaknesses:

  • Mackie's relativism critique
  • Vast cross-cultural disagreements
• What are the key concepts in Mackie's critique of moral realism?

  • Anti-realism: No right or wrong
  • Error theory: All ethical beliefs are false
  • Social conditioning: Moral intuitions shaped by society
• What is the belief expressed when using ethical language according to the study material?

  Ethical language expresses beliefs about reality.
• What does error theory state about ethical beliefs?

  All ethical beliefs are false because there is no right or wrong in reality.
• What is the implication of Mackie’s argument regarding moral agreement?

  Moral agreement could arise from evolutionary drives or societal requirements.
• Why would a society that allows killing or stealing likely fall apart?


  Because such actions would undermine the practical requirements for societal existence.
• What is Ayer’s theory called?


  Emotivism.