Issues and debates

• What is gender bias?

  The differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real differences.
• What is alpha bias?


  A tendency to exaggerate differences between men and women, suggesting real and enduring differences.
• What are the consequences of alpha bias?


  Theories may devalue one gender in comparison to the other, typically devaluing women.
• What are examples of alpha bias in psychology?

  1. Psychodynamic explanations suggest females are less moral than males due to lack of castration anxiety.
  2. Wilson’s theory claims promiscuous females go against their nature, while males are genetically determined.
  3. Schizophrenia diagnosed more frequently in men, masking symptoms in women.
• What does androcentrism refer to?

  The consequence of beta bias where behavior is compared according to a 'male' standard, neglecting women.
• How has PMS been criticized in terms of androcentrism?

  PMS is seen as a social construction that trivializes female emotion, particularly anger.
• What is beta bias?

  A tendency to ignore or minimize differences between men and women, assuming insights from studies of men apply equally to women.
• What are examples of beta bias in psychology?

  1. Fight or flight response research used only male mice, generalizing results to females.
  2. Kohlberg’s moral reasoning theory based on male responses, generalized to both genders.
• What is the aim of universality in psychology?

  To develop theories that apply to all people, regardless of their differences.
• How does feminist psychology view gender differences?


  It argues that socially determined stereotypes contribute more to perceived differences than biological explanations.
• What is reverse alpha bias?

  The development of theories that emphasize women's strengths, challenging stereotypes of male superiority.
• What is the impact of beta bias on women's opportunities?

  Beta bias has allowed women greater access to educational and occupational opportunities.
• What assumptions need to be challenged regarding gender bias?

  Many theories remain unchallenged, such as Darwin's view of sexual selection portraying women as choosy and men as competitive.
• What is cultural bias?

  The tendency to judge all cultures and individuals based on one's own cultural assumptions.
• What is cultural relativism?


  The view that behavior, morals, standards, and values cannot be judged properly without considering the culture in which they originate.
• What are examples of cultural bias in psychological research?

  1. Milgram’s study showed different obedience rates across cultures.
  2. Schizophrenia symptoms may be interpreted differently in various cultures.
• How does alpha bias relate to cultural relativism?

  Cultural relativism can lead to alpha bias by assuming real differences between cultural groups, overlooking universals.
• What is the emic-etic distinction?

  The emic approach emphasizes cultural uniqueness, while the etic approach seeks universal aspects of behavior.
• What is ethnocentrism?


  The tendency to evaluate other cultures using the standards and customs of one's own culture.
• How can indigenous psychologies counter ethnocentrism?

  By developing different groups of theories in different countries that reflect local cultures.
• What are the consequences of cultural bias in research methods?

  Research may be based on a narrow demographic, leading to institutionalized cultural bias in psychology.
• What is the impact of cultural bias on attitudes towards certain groups?

  Cultural bias can lead to stereotyping and discrimination against groups perceived as 'lesser'.
• What is determinism in psychology?


  The belief that behavior is controlled by external or internal factors beyond an individual's control.
• What are the three types of determinism?

  Biological, environmental, and psychic determinism.
• What is biological determinism?


  The view that behavior is caused by internal biological forces beyond our control, such as genes.
• What is environmental determinism?


  The belief that behavior is caused by previous experiences through conditioning.
• What is psychic determination according to Freud?

  Adult behavior is determined by innate drives and early experiences leading to unconscious conflicts.
• What is free will in psychology?

  The power of individuals to make choices about their behavior without external or internal constraints.
• What is hard determinism?


  The view that all behavior can be predicted by internal and external forces, denying free will.
• What is soft determinism?

  A version of determinism that allows for some element of free will in behavior.