comparative theories

• What is the main view of realists regarding the motivations of states?

  Realists have a practical, non-idealistic view that states are motivated by strife and violence.
• Why do realists argue that states must build up their defenses?

  Realists argue that states must build up their defenses because institutions of global governance cannot be relied upon for security.
• Who is associated with the idea that a strong state is a guardian against violence?

  Thomas Hobbes is associated with the idea that a strong state is a guardian against mankind's tendency towards violence.
• How do realists view human nature?

  Realists tend to have a negative view of human nature, rooted in traditional conservative political philosophy.
• What is the premise of realism regarding sovereign states?

  Realism is based on the premise that sovereign states seek power to achieve the best deal for themselves in an anarchic world.
• What motivates states according to realism?

  States are motivated by power, as it provides the best security for their people.
• What do realists believe about the rationality and morality of humans?


  Realists believe that humans are not always rational or moral.
• What are the foremost problems faced by a state according to realism?

  Conflict, war, and security are the foremost problems faced by a state.
• What is the liberal view of human nature?

  Liberals have a more positive view of human nature, seeing humans as rational and cooperative.
• Who are some key thinkers associated with liberalism?

  Key thinkers associated with liberalism include John Locke and John Rawls.
• What do liberals believe about the cooperation of nation-states?

  Liberals believe that nation-states can work together to achieve collective solutions to shared problems.
• How does free trade relate to liberalism?

  Free trade encourages democracy, cooperation, and understanding among states.
• What are the key developments in the later 20th century that challenged realism?


  • Decline in conflict and change in the nature of conflict (less inter-state, more civil war)
  • Rise in democracy (rare for two democratic countries to go to war)
  • Growth in world trade (reduces potential for conflict)
• What do liberals believe about human morality and cooperation?

  Liberals believe that humans are moral creatures capable of cooperation that benefits their interests.
• What is the concept of complex interdependence in liberalism?

  Complex interdependence reduces conflict and expresses the cooperation among states.
• What role do international organizations play according to liberals?

  International organizations support cooperation and should be encouraged and empowered.
• How do liberals view the relationship between cooperation and conflict?

  Liberals argue that we are defined by cooperation as much as by conflict, especially with global problems.
• Hobbes argued that, without an authoritative state, men would live 'nasty, brutish' lives driven by fears, desires and power. Machiavelli presented men as 'above all malignant, iniquitous, violent and savage', and only held in check by a powerful state. Morgenthau saw humans as innately selfish and rejected moralistic approaches to international politics.
• Since there is no higher authority than the state, and the state cannot be punished or held to account by a higher authority, realists view the world as operating in a state of international anarchy. Structural realists believe that it is the anarchical nature of global society, not human nature, that causes states to behave aggressively.
• Realists regard states as the most important actor on the 'state-centric' world stage. Because states are composed of greedy, self-interested and power-seeking people, states exhibit the same characteristics. Therefore, while human egoism leads to interpersonal conflict, state egoism marks international competition and rivalry.
• To a realist, war between states is inevitable because of disagreement between selfish individuals and states, the lack of adherence to moral principles coupled with the pursuit of power, and the limited amount of power in the world which causes all states to pose a threat to one another.
• The security dilemma is the natural consequence of a belief in the inevitability of war. It is the theory that any actions taken by the state to increase its security can lead to other states responding in kind, producing increased tensions that create conflict.
• Offensive realists such as John Mearsheimer contend that international anarchy predispose states to perpetual confrontation, and the most rational policy is therefore to dominate and try to become the 'global hegemon'. Defensive realists like Kenneth Waltz maintain that it is unwise for states to maximise their share of world power because the system will punish them, and a balance of power is preferable to hegemony.
• Realists believe that powerful states will always be able to overcome weaker states, emphasising hard (military and economic) power over soft (diplomatic and cultural) power. Threats and the use of force are particularly important types of hard power as they ensure security. The primary goal of a state is therefore to maximise power.
• To offensive realists, a state can never have too much power and the best result for a state is hegemonic status. Defensive realists, on the other hand, argue that an imbalance of power can lead to further conflict while a balance can create stability.
• While classical realists view human nature as the reason for state aggression and the inevitability of conflict, neo-realists or structural realists blame the anarchical structure of global politics.
• John Locke rejects Hobbes' belief that mankind will regress to a 'state of nature', instead arguing that making is rational and cooperative. John Rawls, a modern liberal, took this further and thought that the role of the state is to provide people with as much freedom for self-expression as possible, believing that this would prevent people from acting antagonistically towards each other.
• Complex interdependence is characterised by states prioritising trade over war, addressing economic issues over defence or foreign policy, and developing/engaging in intergovernmental and transnational organisations, meaning they are no longer autonomous international actors. This is at odds with the realist view of states as autonomous actors.
• Liberals believe that, rather that concentrating on the accumulation of hard power, the best way for a state to protect itself is to put more of their faith in multilateral institutions which can provide common security for all and a basis for non-conflict-based crisis resolution. In other words, a state will achieve more for itself by cooperating.
• Liberalism views institutions, economic integration, human rights and democracy of being capable of creating peace without an inherent security dilemma. The purpose of liberal institutions such as the UN and NATO is to ensure peace by standardising behaviour through the rule of law and providing information between elites and officials.
• Liberals emphasise the use of power differently to realists in the number of ways, namely in that they believe the accumulation of power can be counter productive. They also place more emphasis on economic power and free-trade links compared to military power, believing that these forms can make states richer and more stable.
• Liberals believe that as states become more economically interdependent, the risk of conflict decreases and the entire global system becomes more peaceful. Hard power, from the liberal point of view, should only be used as a last resort.
• Liberals believe that global governance is both possible and desirable. They don't believe a world government is possible, but do point to the huge numbers of IGOs that have been created since the end of WW2 as evidence that a more informal type of governance can work, and are optimistic that these institutions will continue to develop, especially as global challenges become more urgent.