Gender and Culture in psychology

• Universality - The assumption that research can be applied to everyone everywhere, regardless of the time and culture.
• Bias - A distortion in representation of a group/data.

  A view is biased if it leans towards a subjective opinion, rather than objective reality.

  All psychologists approach a research topic from their own perspective which makes it likely to be biased
• Gender bias - A distorted view of behaviours that may be typical and atypical for men and/or women. As a result, males or females may be misrepresented. There are two types of gender bias:

  • Alpha bias
  • Beta bias
• Alpha Bias - Research that exaggerates differences between men and women
• Alpha bias example - Freud

  Freud claimed that identification processes are weaker for females than males as girls do not experience castration anxiety, so boys have a stronger fear. As a result Freud claimed that females are morally inferior to males.
• Beta Bias - Research that ignores, minimises or underestimates differences between men and women.
• Beta Bias example - Fight or Flight response

  The research was conducted on male animals only as it was thought that females hormones would fluctuate too greatly. This research misrepresented women as they have been suggested to act differently and respond with tend and befriend.
• Androcentrism - research that is centred on men. Normal behaviour is judged according to male standards meaning that female behaviour is often judged to be abnormal by comparison.
• Androcentrism example - male anger is often seen as a rational response to external pressures whereas female anger is seen as less accepted.
• Avoiding gender bias in research

  • Promoting universality
  • Women should be studied within meaningful real life contexts and genuinely participate in research
  • Diversity within groups of women not just comparisons between women and men
  • Greater focus on research into women dominated areas
• Evaluation of gender bias

  • Methodological flaws like researchers treating men and women differently. Therefore research might not be accurate.
  • Sexism within research process - male researchers are more likely to have their work published as it is seen as more interesting and studies that find evidence of gender differences are more likely to be published, creating bias in theory and research.
• Evaluation of gender bias ctd

  • May create misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fail to challenge negative stereotypes and validate discriminatory practices. Science leads to real world applications and may provide scientific justification for denying women opportunities.

  Tim Hunt told a conference the trouble with girls in the lab is that they cause men to fall in love with them and cry when criticised. This can have damaging consequences which affect the lives and prospects of real women.
• Culture bias - the tendency to judge all people in terms of your own cultural assumptions ignoring the effects that cultural differences might have on behaviour.
• Ethnocentrism - judging others by the value and standards of ones own culture. As a consequence, it may include beliefs about the superiority of one's own culture.
• Ethnocentrism example - Ainsworth Strange Situation

  It reflects the norms and values of Western society. When applied to Japan babies were more likely to be considered insecurely attached because they were so distressed during separation but these babies had rarely experienced separation from their mothers as it was in their culture not to.
• Cultural relativism - behaviour can only be properly meaningful and understood in the context of the norms and values of the society or culture in which it occurs. Therefore, research may only relate to the culture it has studied.
• Cultural relativism example - Mary Jahoda Criteria of ideal mental health

  Mary was from an individualistic culture an she based her criteria off her culture but some of this criteria didn't fit other cultures
• Avoiding culture bias in research

  • Do not attempt to extrapolate findings to cultures that are not represented in the research sample
  • Use researchers who are native/familiar to the culture being investigated
  • Carry out cross cultural research rather than sole culture research
  • Study single culture to understand that culture (emic approach)
• Evaluation of culture bias

  • Classic studies - many classic studies are culturally biased. In social psychology, Asch and Milgrams studies were conducted with US participants only. Replications in different countries produced different results.
  • Ethnic stereotyping - has led to prejudice against groups of people. Gould studied IQ, the tests were culturally biased as they included items on American presidents. Those from Europe received lowest IQ scores.